McDonald LC, Owings M, Jernigan DB: Clostridium difficile infection in patients discharged from US short-stay hospitals, 1996–2003. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006, 12 (3): 409-415. 10.3201/eid1203.051064.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Wilcox MH, Smyth ET: Incidence and impact of clostridium difficile infection in the UK, 1993–1996. J Hosp Infect. 1998, 39 (3): 181-187. 10.1016/S0195-6701(98)90256-0.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Lo Vecchio A, Zacur G: Clostridium difficile infection: an update on epidemiology, risk factors, and therapeutic options. Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 2012, 28: 1-9. 10.1097/MOG.0b013e32834bc9a9.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Muto CA, Pokrywka M, Shutt K, Mendelsohn AB, Nouri K, Posey K, Roberts T, Croyle K, Krystofiak S, Patel-Brown S, et al: A large outbreak of clostridium difficile-associated disease with an unexpected proportion of deaths and colectomies at a teaching hospital following increased fluoroquinolone use. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2005, 26 (3): 273-280. 10.1086/502539.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Ricciardi R, Rothenberger DA, Madoff RD, Baxter NN: Increasing prevalence and severity of clostridium difficile colitis in hospitalized patients in the united states. Arch Surg. 2007, 142 (7): 624-631. 10.1001/archsurg.142.7.624.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
McGlone SM, Bailey RR, Zimmer SM, Popovich MJ, Tian Y, Ufberg P, Muder RR, Lee BY: The economic burden of clostridium difficile. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2012, 18 (3): 282-289. 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2011.03571.x.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Benson L, Song X, Campos J, Singh N: Changing epidemiology of clostridium difficile-associated disease in children. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2007, 28 (11): 1233-1235. 10.1086/520732.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Clements ACA, Magalhaes RJS, Tatem AJ, Paterson DL, Riley TV: Clostridium difficile PCR ribotype 027: assessing the risks of further worldwide spread. Lancet Infect Dis. 2010, 10 (6): 395-404. 10.1016/S1473-3099(10)70080-3.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Cohen SH, Gerding DN, Johnson S, Kelly CP, Loo VG, McDonald LC, Pepin J, Wilcox MH: Clinical practice guidelines for clostridium difficile infection in adults: 2010 update by the society for healthcare epidemiology of America (SHEA) and the infectious diseases society of america (IDSA). Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2010, 31 (5): 431-455. 10.1086/651706.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Curry SR, Muto CA, Schlackman JL, Pasculle AW, Shutt KA, Marsh JW, Harrison LH: Use of MLVA genotyping to determine the role of asymptomatic carriers in C. Difficile transmission. Clin Infect Dis. 2013, 10.1093/cid/cit475. in press
Google Scholar
Riggs MM, Sethi AK, Zabarsky TF, Eckstein EC, Jump RLP, Donskey CJ: Asymptomatic carriers are a potential source for transmission of epidemic and nonepidemic clostridium difficile strains among long-term care facility residents. Clin Infect Dis. 2007, 45 (8): 992-998. 10.1086/521854.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Dial S, Delaney JAC, Barkun AN, Suissa S: Use of gastric acid-suppressive agents and the risk of community-acquired clostridium difficile-associated disease. JAMA. 2005, 294 (23): 2989-2995. 10.1001/jama.294.23.2989.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
McFarland LV, Beneda HW, Clarridge JE, Raugi GJ: Implications of the changing face of clostridium difficile disease for health care practitioners. Am J Infect Control. 2007, 35 (4): 237-253. 10.1016/j.ajic.2006.06.004.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
McFarland LV, Mulligan ME, Kwok RY, Stamm WE: Nosocomial acquisition of clostridium difficile infection. N Engl J Med. 1989, 320 (4): 204-210. 10.1056/NEJM198901263200402.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Sethi A, Al‒Nassir W, Nerandzic M, Bobulsky G, Donskey C: Persistence of skin contamination and environmental shedding of clostridium difficile during and after treatment of C. Difficile infection. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2010, 31 (1): 21-27. 10.1086/649016.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Eggertson L: C. Difficile may have killed 2000 in quebec: study. Can Med Assoc J. 2005, 173 (9): 1020-1021. 10.1503/cmaj.051226.
Article
Google Scholar
Starr JM, Campbell A: Mathematical modeling of clostridium difficile infection. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2001, 7 (8): 432-437. 10.1046/j.1198-743x.2001.00291.x.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Clabots CR, Johnson S, Olson MM, Peterson LR, Gerding DN: Acquisition of clostridium difficile by hospitalized patients: evidence for colonized new admissions as a source of infection. J Infect Dis. 1992, 166 (3): 561-567. 10.1093/infdis/166.3.561.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Starr JM, Campbell A, Renshaw E, Poxton IR, Gibson GJ: Spatio-temporal stochastic modelling of clostridium difficile. J Hosp Infect. 2009, 71 (1): 49-56. 10.1016/j.jhin.2008.09.013.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Loo VG, Bourgault A-M, Poirier L, Lamothe F, Michaud S, Turgeon N, Toye B, Beaudoin A, Frost EH, Gilca R, et al: Host and pathogen factors for clostridium difficile infection and colonization. N Engl J Med. 2011, 365 (18): 1693-1703. 10.1056/NEJMoa1012413.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Lanzas C, Dubberke ER, Lu Z, Reske KA, Grohn YT: Epidemiological model for clostridium difficile transmission in healthcare settings. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2011, 32 (6): 553-561. 10.1086/660013.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Freeman J, Bauer MP, Baines SD, Corver J, Fawley WN, Goorhuis B, Kuijper EJ, Wilcox MH: The changing epidemiology of clostridium difficile infections. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2010, 23 (3): 529-549. 10.1128/CMR.00082-09.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Kelly CP, LaMont JT: Clostridium difficile–more difficult than ever. N Engl J Med. 2008, 359 (18): 1932-1940. 10.1056/NEJMra0707500.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Rupnik M, Wilcox MH, Gerding DN: Clostridium difficile infection: new developments in epidemiology and pathogenesis. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2009, 7 (7): 526-536. 10.1038/nrmicro2164.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Best EL, Fawley WN, Parnell P, Wilcox MH: The potential for airborne dispersal of clostridium difficile from symptomatic patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2010, 50 (11): 1450-1457. 10.1086/652648.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Roberts K, Smith CF, Snelling AM, Kerr KG, Banfield KR, Sleigh PA, Beggs CB: Aerial dissemination of clostridium difficile spores. BMC Infect Dis. 2008, 8: 7-7. 10.1186/1471-2334-8-7.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Kyne L, Merry C, O’Connell B, Kelly A, Keane C, O’Neill D: Factors associated with prolonged symptoms and severe disease due to clostridium difficile. Age Ageing. 1999, 28 (2): 107-113. 10.1093/ageing/28.2.107.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Bignardi GE: Risk factors for clostridium difficile infection. J Hosp Infect. 1998, 40 (1): 1-15. 10.1016/S0195-6701(98)90019-6.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Johnson S: Recurrent clostridium difficile infection: a review of risk factors, treatments, and outcomes. J Infect. 2009, 58 (6): 403-410. 10.1016/j.jinf.2009.03.010.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
OECD: Health at a Glance 2011: OECD Indicators. 2011, OECD Publishing, 10.1787/health_glance-2011-en.
Google Scholar
MacDougall C, Polk R: Variability in rates of Use of antibacterials among 130 US hospitals and risk‒adjustment models for interhospital comparison. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2008, 29: 203-211. 10.1086/528810.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Polk R, Fox C, Mahoney A, Letcavage JCM: Measurement of adult antibacterial drug Use in 130 US hospitals: comparison of defined daily dose and days of therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2007, 44: 664-670. 10.1086/511640.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Rafii F, Sutherland J, Cerniglia C: Effects of treatment with antimicrobial agents on the human colonic microflora. Ther Clin Risk Manag. 2008, 4: 1343-1358.
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Keeling M, Rohani P: Modeling infectious diseases in humans and animals. 2007, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press
Google Scholar
Johnson S, Clabots CR, Linn FV, Olson MM, Peterson LR, Gerding DN: Nosocomial clostridium difficile colonisation and disease. Lancet. 1990, 336 (8707): 97-9100. 10.1016/0140-6736(90)91605-A.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
McFarland LV: Update on the changing epidemiology of clostridium difficile-associated disease. Nat Clin Pract Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2008, 5 (1): 40-48. 10.1038/ncpgasthep1029.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Leffler DA, Lamont JT: Treatment of clostridium difficile-associated disease. Gastroenterology. 2009, 136 (6): 1899-1912. 10.1053/j.gastro.2008.12.070.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Bartlett JG: Treatment of antibiotic-associated pseudomembranous colitis. Rev Infect Dis. 1984, 6 (suppl 1): S235-S241.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
McBryde ES, Pettitt AN, McElwain DLS: A stochastic mathematical model of methicillin resistant staphylococcus aureus transmission in an intensive care unit: predicting the impact of interventions. J Theor Biol. 2007, 245 (3): 470-481. 10.1016/j.jtbi.2006.11.008.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Gillespie DT: Exact stochastic simulation of coupled chemical reactions. J Phys Chem. 1977, 81 (25): 2340-2361. 10.1021/j100540a008.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Muto CA, Blank MK, Marsh JW, Vergis EN, O’Leary MM, Shutt KA, Pasculle AW, Pokrywka M, Garcia JG, Posey K, et al: Control of an outbreak of infection with the hypervirulent clostridium difficile BI strain in a university hospital using a comprehensive “bundle” approach. Clin Infect Dis. 2007, 45 (10): 1266-1273. 10.1086/522654.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Walker AS, Eyre DW, Wyllie DH, Dingle KE, Harding RM, O’Connor L, Griffiths D, Vaughan A, Finney J, Wilcox MH, et al: Characterisation of clostridium difficile hospital ward-based transmission using extensive epidemiological data and molecular typing. PLoS Med. 2012, 9 (2): e1001172-10.1371/journal.pmed.1001172.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Eastwood K, Else P, Charlett A, Wilcox M: Comparison of nine commercially available clostridium difficile toxin detection assays, a real-time PCR assay for C. Difficile tcdB, and a glutamate dehydrogenase detection assay to cytotoxin testing and cytotoxigenic culture methods. J Clin Microbiol. 2009, 47 (10): 3211-3217. 10.1128/JCM.01082-09.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Kyne L, Warny M, Qamar A, Kelly CP: Asymptomatic carriage of clostridium difficile and serum levels of IgG antibody against toxin a. N Engl J Med. 2000, 342 (6): 390-397. 10.1056/NEJM200002103420604.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Bauer MP, Kuijper EJ, van Dissel JT: European society of clinical microbiology and infectious diseases (ESCMID): treatment guidance document for clostridium difficile infection (CDI). Clin Microbiol Infect. 2009, 15 (12): 1067-1079. 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.03099.x.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Khanna S, Pardi D, Aronson S, Kammer P, Orenstein R, St Sauver J, Harmsen W, Zinsmeister A: The epidemiology of community-acquired clostridium difficile infection: a population-based study. Am J Gastroenterol. 2012, 107: 89-95. 10.1038/ajg.2011.398.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Dial S, Alrasadi K, Manoukian C, Huang A, Menzies D: Risk of clostridium difficile diarrhea among hospital inpatients prescribed proton pump inhibitors: cohort and case–control studies. Can Med Assoc J. 2004, 171 (1): 33-38. 10.1503/cmaj.1040876.
Article
Google Scholar
Loo VG, Poirier L, Miller MA, Oughton M, Libman MD, Michaud S, Bourgault A-M, Nguyen T, Frenette C, Kelly M, et al: A predominantly clonal multi-institutional outbreak of clostridium difficile–associated diarrhea with high morbidity and mortality. N Engl J Med. 2005, 353 (23): 2442-2449. 10.1056/NEJMoa051639.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Gerding DN, Johnson S, Peterson LR, Mulligan ME, Silva J: Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and colitis. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1995, 16: 459-477. 10.1086/648363.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Mayfield JL, Leet T, Miller J, Mundy LM: Environmental control to reduce transmission of clostridium difficile. Clin Infect Dis. 2000, 31: 995-1000. 10.1086/318149.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Thomas C, Stevenson M, Williamson DJ, Riley TV: Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: epidemiological data from western australia associated with a modified antibiotic policy. Clin Infect Dis. 2002, 35: 1457-1462. 10.1086/342691.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Aldeyab MA, Kearney MP, Scott MG, Aldiab MA, Alahmadi YM, Darwish Elhajji FW, Magee FA, McElnay JC: An evaluation of the impact of antibiotic stewardship on reducing the use of high-risk antibiotics and its effect on the incidence of clostridium difficile infection in hospital settings. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2012, 67 (12): 2988-2996. 10.1093/jac/dks330.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Jump RLPMDP, Olds DMRNP, Seifi NMS, Kypriotakis GMS, Jury LARNCNP, Peron EPP, Hirsch AAP, Drawz PEMD, Watts BMD, Bonomo RAMD, et al: Effective antimicrobial stewardship in a long-term care facility through an infectious disease consultation service: keeping a LID on antibiotic Use. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2012, 33 (12): 1185-1192. 10.1086/668429.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Nathwani D, Sneddon J, Malcolm W, Wiuff C, Patton A, Hurding S, Eastaway A, Seaton RA, Watson E, Gillies E, et al: Scottish antimicrobial prescribing group (SAPG): development and impact of the scottish national antimicrobial stewardship programme. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2011, 38 (1): 16-26. 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2011.02.005.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Valiquette L, Cossette B, Garant M-P, Diab H, Pépin J: Impact of a reduction in the Use of high-risk antibiotics on the course of an epidemic of clostridium difficile-associated disease caused by the hypervirulent NAP1/027 strain. Clin Infect Dis. 2007, 45 (2): S112-S121.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Anderson RM, Garnett GP: Mathematical models of the transmission and control of sexually transmitted diseases. Sex Transm Dis. 2000, 27: 636-643. 10.1097/00007435-200011000-00012.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Nowak M, Anderson R, McLean A, Wolfs T, Goudsmit J, May R: Antigenic diversity thresholds and the development of AIDS. Science. 1991, 254: 963-969. 10.1126/science.1683006.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Yakob L, Clements ACA: A mathematical model of chikungunya dynamics and control: the major epidemic on réunion island. PLoS ONE. 2013, 8 (3): e57448-10.1371/journal.pone.0057448.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Yakob L, Dunning R, Yan G: Indoor residual spray and insecticide-treated bednets for malaria control: theoretical synergisms and antagonisms. J R Soc Interface. 2011, 8 (59): 799-806. 10.1098/rsif.2010.0537.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Yakob L, Yan G: Modeling the effects of integrating larval habitat source reduction and insecticide treated nets for malaria control. PLoS ONE. 2009, 4 (9): e6921-10.1371/journal.pone.0006921.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Ferguson N, Keeling MJ, Edmunds WJ, Gani R, Brenfell BT, Anderson RM, Leach S: Planning for smallpox outbreaks. Nature. 1991, 425: 681-685.
Article
Google Scholar
Meyers LA: Contact network epidemiology: bond percolation applied to infectious disease prediction and control. Bull Am Math Soc. 2007, 44: 63-86.
Article
Google Scholar