Skip to main content
Download PDF

Severe strongyloidiasis: a systematic review of case reports

BMC Infectious Diseases volume 13, Article number: 78 (2013) Cite this article

Abstract

Background

Strongyloidiasis is commonly a clinically unapparent, chronic infection, but immuno suppressed subjects can develop fatal disease. We carried out a review of literature on hyperinfection syndrome (HS) and disseminated strongyloidiasis (DS), in order to describe the most challenging aspects of severe strongyloidiasis.

Methods

We conducted a structured search using PubMed to collect case reports and short case series on HS/DS published from 1991 to 2011. We restricted search to papers in English, Spanish, Italian and French. Case reports were classified as HS/DS according to given definitions.

Results

Records screened were 821, and 311 were excluded through titles and abstract evaluation. Of 510 full-text articles assessed for eligibility, 213 were included in qualitative analysis. As some of them were short case series, eventually the number of cases analyzed was 244.

Steroids represented the main trigger predisposing to HS and DS (67% cases): they were mostly administered to treat underlying conditions (e.g. lymphomas, rheumatic diseases). However, sometimes steroids were empirically prescribed to treat signs and symptoms caused by unsuspected/unrecognized strongyloidiasis. Diagnosis was obtained by microscopy examination in 100% cases, while serology was done in a few cases (6.5%). Only in 3/29 cases of solid organ/bone marrow transplantation there is mention of pre-transplant serological screening. Therapeutic regimens were different in terms of drugs selection and combination, administration route and duration. Similar fatality rate was observed between patients with DS (68.5%) and HS (60%).

Conclusions

Proper screening (which must include serology) is mandatory in high - risk patients, for instance candidates to immunosuppressive medications, currently or previously living in endemic countries. In some cases, presumptive treatment might be justified. Ivermectin is the gold standard for treatment, although the optimal dosage is not clearly defined in case of HS/DS.

Peer Review reports

Background

Strongyloidiasis is a neglected condition caused by Strongyloides stercoralis, a soil – transmitted helminth mainly diffused in tropical and subtropical regions, but also present in small areas of low endemicity in temperate climates [1]. Most infected individuals are asymptomatic or may present intermittent symptoms, mostly affecting intestine (from mild abdominal pain, intermittent or persistent diarrhea to more severe conditions that can mimic inflammatory bowel disease), lungs (cough, wheezing and asthma, chronic bronchitis) and skin (pruritus, rash). Systemic symptoms such as weight loss and cachexia may also occur [2]. Immune suppressed subjects tend to develop hyperinfection syndrome (HS) and disseminated strongyloidiasis (DS), that are potentially fatal [3]. Therefore, it is mandatory to diagnose and treat the chronic infection, in order to prevent the life-threatening form. Unfortunately, the index of suspicion of health care providers seems to be low, especially in non-endemic countries [4]. Moreover, there are still gaps in knowledge regarding many aspects of the infection, such as diagnosis and treatment response [2].

Our aim was to systematically review case reports of severe strongyloidiasis, in order to outline the main features of hyperinfection and disseminated strongyloidiasis and the difficulties in their management.

Methods

We carried out a systematic review of case reports/short case series published in PubMed from January 1991 to April 2011. We considered papers available in the following languages: English, Spanish, Italian, French.

The electronic search strategy was as follows: disease (strongyl*, anguillulose) AND severity of cases (disseminat*, hyperinfect*, severe, death, fatal, mortality) OR disease (strongyl*, anguillulose) AND associated conditions (tumor*, cancer, haematolog*, lymphom*, leukem*, leukaem*, neoplas*, malignan*, HTLV*, HIV, AIDS, hypogammaglobulinemia, rheumat*, “biological agents”, diabet*, transplant*, COPD, steroid*, glucocorticoid*, Immunosuppression [MeSH], Immunocompromised Host [MeSH]) and limiting the search to humans. Search was done on March 20th 2011.

Definitions used for case - inclusion [5]: - Dissemination: larvae found in any organ, other than the respiratory and the gastrointestinal tracts. Hyperinfection: infection confined to lungs and gastrointestinal tract, but signs/symptoms of severe diseases in relation to elevated number of larvae; in particular, necessity of intensive care, presence of sepsis/meningitis by enteric bacteria, death (without any other clear underlying cause).

Results

Data synthesis

Our search strategy permitted to identify 821 papers, of which 311 were excluded by title and abstract evaluation. Full-text papers were then assessed for eligibility according to the criteria outlined above. Among the 213 papers included, some were small case series, eventually the number of cases analyzed was 244 (Figure 1).

Figure 1
figure 1

PRISMA flow chart: data collection and selection of studies.

Full size image

Countries

Reports from highly endemic countries were 65/244 (27%), with India ([6–23]), Argentina ([24–28]), Brazil ([29–39]) and Peru ([40–42]) accounting for more than two thirds. Only four cases were reported from the whole of Africa [43–46], three of which in South Africa, a state where adequate diagnostic facilities are available. We collected 83/244 (34%) reports from North America (USA [47–109] and Canada [110–116]), 58/244 (24%) from Europe (Belgium [40, 117], France [118–129], Germany [130, 131], Greece [132–134], Italy [135–141], the Netherlands [142–145], Spain [146–155], Switzerland [156], UK [157–164]) and five (2%) from Oceania (Australia [165–168] and New Zealand [169]). In these areas of low/no endemicity, half of the patients were immigrants (70/146, 48%), while a few subjects were veterans (5/146, 3%) who presumably acquired the infection during military service in an endemic country. Other areas of low endemicity where cases have been reported are in Eastern Asia (21 cases, mostly from Japan ([170–177]) and Taiwan ([178–182])), the Arabian peninsula (nine cases, mostly from Kuwait ([183, 184]) and Qatar ([185, 186])) and Israel ([187, 188]) (three cases). Countries such as Iran ([189]), Turkey ([190]) and Venezuela ([191]) that might be presumed at medium to high prevalence, account for only one case each.

Triggers for development of HS/DS

According to the case definitions, 171 cases were classified as hyper infection and 73 cases as dissemination.

A high percentage of patients (67%: 164/244) were under corticosteroids: most of them presented clinical conditions causing immune suppression per-se or due to other related therapies (for instance leukemia, rheumatic conditions, transplant), as it is shown in Table 1. On the other hand, a few patients were taking steroids for eosinophilia and/or a specific symptoms caused by S. stercoralis itself (data reported in Table 1 too). A patient even underwent bone marrow transplant because of an unexplained eosinophilia misdiagnosed as “idiopathic hypereosinophilic syndrome” [81]; after receiving steroids and immunosuppressive therapy he developed HS (but only limited autopsy was performed, so we cannot rule out DS) and died.

Table 1 Patients under steroid treatment: reasons for prescription
Full size table

Transplant is surely an event that poses the Strongyloides - infected patient at high risk of developing HS/DS. We collected 28/244 (11.5%) cases of HS/DS in transplant patients, of whom 19 (68%) died. A couple of patients who developed hyper infection also had co infection with CMV [21, 107]. All the surviving patients received ivermectin, either as single treatment (1 patient) or in combination with albendazole (7) or thiabendazole (1) [29, 54, 60, 71, 90, 92, 94, 142, 145, 150].

HTLV-1 infection is a well known risk factor (sometimes in association with related haematological malignancies), of which we found 24/244 (10%) reports ([214, 158, 120, 159, 215, 53, 54, 143, 122, 12, 111, 32, 216, 77, 126, 163, 114, 80, 35, 164, 175, 155, 116]). Ten of the 24 patients (42%) died. One patient had HTLV-1-HIV co infection [122]; he developed an E. coli meningitis but successfully responded to ivermectin, two doses given some days (not specified how many) apart.

We found 38/244 (15%) reports on HIV-positive patients, 26 (68%) of whom died (Figure 2). Seven HIV patients were also receiving steroids for suspected Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia [24, 26], immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome [105], misdiagnosis of asthma [58], Wegener granulomatosis [36], toxoplasmosis encephalitis [36], cerebral TB with vasculitis [124]; six of them died.

Figure 2
figure 2

Deaths in the HIV patients subgroup.

Full size image

A few reports/case series describe severe strongyloidiasis in patients with alcoholism [178, 217] and malnutrition [27, 171]. An apparently immunocompetent patient developed hyper infection and died two days after having started therapy with thiabendazole [149]. Unfortunately autopsy was denied.

Diagnosis

Eosinophilia was present in 55/244 cases (22.5%) overall, and only in 12/73 cases (16.4%) of dissemination. In all cases S. stercoralis was found at microscopy examination of biological samples. Serology was performed only in 16/244 patients (6.5%) (Table 2). In a couple of organ transplant recipients, an ELISA test was negative pre-transplant, but resulted positive in the deceased donors (test performed retrospectively) [60, 145]. In other two cases serology (ELISA) was negative: a HIV-infected person, who had larvae in stool and sputum [165] and a patient with dermatomyositis, under chronic treatment with prednisone and methotrexate, who died from disseminated strongyloidiasis (larvae found at autopsy in skin, lungs, small and large bowel, gall bladder, vessels of meninges and cervical spinal cord) [100].

Table 2 Patients tested with serology: chronic conditions and corticosteroids therapy
Full size table

Diagnosis was obtained post mortem in 29 cases (12%).

Therapy

Therapies given were very different in relation to the drugs used and the length of treatment.

In Table 3 we summarize the drugs used. In the “other drugs” group we found mebendazole [9, 17, 44, 48, 131, 137, 181, 218], cambendazole [35, 36], levamisole [43, 199], pyrantel pamoate [75, 108], diethylcarbamazine [14].

Table 3 Treatments
Full size table

Albendazole was used as a single drug even in recent case reports; since 2008 we found patients treated with albendazole only in reports from Pakistan [203], Romania [217], Taiwan [182], Israel [187], Kuwait [184], Argentina [25], Malaysia [207], Greece [133], Thailand [208].

In most cases the administration route was oral, but due to severe clinical conditions of patients, administration via nasogastric tube, subcutaneous injection (veterinary formulation) and retention enema were used, too.

A patient who developed disseminated strongyloidiasis after an empiric steroid treatment for pruritic rash was treated with albendazole [166]. Only one dose could be given, as the patient died. After his death, a review of his clinical records showed that he had been previously diagnosed with strongyloidiasis and treated with a 3-day course of albendazole; although serology persisted positive and eosinophilia was still present 6 and 12 months after treatment, the patient did not receive any further therapy. Another patient who died from Strongyloides hyper infection had never been treated previously, despite a positive serology [101].

Outcome

The recorded deaths were 153/244 (62.7%). A similar fatality rate was observed in patients with dissemination (50/73 = 68.5%) and with hyperinfection (102/171 = 60%).

All 42 of 244 patients who did not receive any therapy died. Excluding patients treated with combination therapy, we observe that 25/34 (73%) patients treated with albendazole died, while deaths among patients treated with ivermectin and thiabendazole were 18/38 (47%) and 28/55 (51%), respectively.

Discussion

Considering that a considerable number of case reports are described in non endemic countries, we assume that fatal cases must be quite frequent in endemic countries, although they are not frequently published in the literature.

The main risk factors identified in this review have been reported previously, in particular steroids are frequently the trigger for developing severe strongyloidiasis. Unfortunately it was not possible to extract from the case reports the cumulative dosage and the duration of the corticosteroids treatment. Although the association with steroids should be well known, there are still papers reporting cases of patients under steroids who had not been previously screened for strongyloidiasis. Moreover, we found papers reporting severe strongyloidiasis in patients who were previously diagnosed with the infection but had not received a proper treatment. Once more, the lack of familiarity with strongyloidiasis by health care providers is the weak link in the chain; this is also highlighted by the fact that in 12% of cases the diagnosis was made post mortem. Eosinophil count is often normal in severe strongyloidiasis, hence this test has a limited excluding power.

Serology was not frequently performed. In fact, in case of hyperinfection and dissemination the diagnosis is easily made by direct examination of the biological samples. Serology would be most useful in chronic infections, before hyperinfection and/or dissemination occur, while in patients who are already immune suppressed its sensitivity is probably lower.

Limits in our results are due to incomplete information in the case descriptions. Moreover, cases in which autopsy was not performed sometimes couldn’t allow a proper classification. Actually, in the 65 cases we classified as hyper infections, autopsy was not done, hence it is not possible to rule out dissemination. Moreover, we found the same fatality rate for patients with hyper infection and with dissemination, but a misclassification might have played a role. In fact, we think that from a clinical, practical point of view the distinction between hyper infection and dissemination is not essential, because they’re both severe conditions requiring immediate assessment and care.

In general, the best drug to treat strongyloidiasis is ivermectin which is effective and well tolerated. There are still some concerns about the treatment schedule of the chronic infection, and this is even more debated in case of hyper infection/dissemination. In fact there are no specific guidelines and the case reports we collected outline a Babylon of different therapeutic schemes. Subcutaneous ivermectin (veterinary formulation) has been used on an empiric basis, when intestinal absorption is decreased or the patient cannot swallow tablets. On the other hand, albendazole is still used even as a single drug, although it has been proved to be poorly effective. In some cases, this might be due to the scarce availability of ivermectin in many countries.

Conclusions

The first step to be done to guarantee an adequate management of infected patients is to avoid a delayed diagnosis. Unfortunately, lack of familiarity with strongyloidiasis by health care providers still seems to be the main cause of delay. A better diffusion of the available information is badly needed, and collaboration among different specialists (oncologists, rheumatologists…) is desirable in order to provide common and adequate protocols for screening and treatment of at – risk patients.

It is mandatory to treat patients in the chronic phase, before HS/DS develop. Patients with possible, previous exposure to the parasite should be screened with serology before corticosteroid treatment, chemotherapy or transplant. Considering the high tolerability of ivermectin, it would be probably worth treating high – risk patients irrespective of the result of the screening test, in order to avoid the potential consequences of a possible false negative result.

Ivermectin is currently the gold standard for treatment of strongyloidiasis, so it is simply no more ethical to use any other drug. Moreover, ivermectin is in the WHO model lists of essential medicines [219], so it should be registered and made available everywhere, particularly in endemic countries.

Authors’ information

Cohemi project study group: Maurizio Bonati, Francesca Severino, Valeria Confalonieri, Chiara Pandolfini, Zeno Bisoffi, Dora Buonfrate, Andrea Angheben, Marco Albonico, Alessandro Bartoloni, Marianne Strohmeyer, Lorenzo Zammarchi, Jose Muñoz, Robert Pool, Ana Requena-Mendez, Maria Roura, Anita Hardon, Christopher Pell, Peter Chiodini, Juan Moreira, Roberto Sempértegui, Mariella Anselmi, Eduardo Gotuzzo, Maria Alejandra Mena, Hector H. Garcia, Javier Bustos, Saul Santiva, Faustino Torrico,Daniel Lozano, Guido Chumiray Rojas, Teresa Hinojosa Cabrera, Javier Ochoa Morón, Ignacio Abapori Cuellar, Jaime Amorós Suarez, Gianni Tognoni, Alessandra Nicoletti, Elisa Bruno

References

  1. WHO: Strongyloidiasis. http://www.who.int/neglected_diseases/diseases/strongyloidiasis/en/,

  2. Olsen A, Van Lieshout L, Marti H, Polderman T, Polman K, Steinmann P, Stothard R, Thybo S, Verweij JJ, Magnussen P: Strongyloidiasis–the most neglected of the neglected tropical diseases?. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2009, 103 (10): 967-972. 10.1016/j.trstmh.2009.02.013.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Marcos LA, Terashima A, Canales M, Gotuzzo E: Update on Strongyloidiasis in the immunocompromised host. Curr Infect Dis Rep. 2011, 13: 35-46. 10.1007/s11908-010-0150-z.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Boulware DR, Stauffer WM, Hendel-Paterson BR, Rocha JL, Seet RC, Summer AP, Nield LS, Supparatpinyo K, Chaiwarith R, Walker PF: Maltreatment of Strongyloides infection: case series and worldwide physicians-in-training survey. Am J Med. 2007, 120 (6): 545-e541-548

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  5. Keiser PB, Nutman TB: Strongyloides stercoralis in the immunocompromised population. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2004, 17 (1): 208-217. 10.1128/CMR.17.1.208-217.2004.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  6. Agrawal V, Agarwal T, Ghoshal UC: Intestinal strongyloidiasis: a diagnosis frequently missed in the tropics. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2009, 103 (3): 242-246. 10.1016/j.trstmh.2008.08.009.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Ghosh K: Strongyloides stercoralis septicaemia following steroid therapy for eosinophilia: report of three cases. T Roy Soc Trop Med H. 2007, 101 (11): 1163-1165. 10.1016/j.trstmh.2007.05.021.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Das P, Raghu P, Amit Kumar D, Garg P: Strongyloides hyperinfection in rheumatoid arthritis. Int J Surg Pathol. 2007, 15 (4): 391-392. 10.1177/1066896907302241.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Ghoshal UC, Saha J, Ghoshal U, Ray BK, Santra A, Naik S, Mazumder DN: Pigmented nails and Strongyloides stercoralis infestation causing clinical worsening in a patient treated for immunoproliferative small intestinal disease: two unusual observations. J Diarrhoeal Dis Res. 1999, 17 (1): 43-45.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Ghoshal UC, Ghoshal U, Jain M, Kumar A, Aggarwal R, Misra A, Ayyagari A, Naik SR: Strongyloides stercoralis infestation associated with septicemia due to intestinal transmural migration of bacteria. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2002, 17 (12): 1331-1333. 10.1046/j.1440-1746.2002.02750.x.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Ghoshal UC, Alexender G, Ghoshal U, Tripathi S, Krishnani N: Strongyloides stercoralis infestation in a patient with severe ulcerative colitis. Indian J Med Sci. 2006, 60 (3): 106-110. 10.4103/0019-5359.22761.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Jeyamani R, Joseph AJ, Chacko A: Severe and treatment resistant strongyloidiasis–indicator of HTLV-I infection. Trop Gastroenterol. 2007, 28 (4): 176-177.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Murali A, Rajendiran G, Ranganathan K, Shanthakumari S: Disseminated infection with Strongyloides stercoralis in a diabetic patient. Indian J Med Microbiol. 2010, 28 (4): 407-408. 10.4103/0255-0857.71854.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Patil PL, Salkar HR, Ghodeswar SS, Gawande JP: Parasites (filaria & strongyloides) in malignant pleural effusion. Indian J Med Sci. 2005, 59 (10): 455-456. 10.4103/0019-5359.17053.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Premanand R, Prasad GV, Mohan A, Gururajkumar A, Reddy MK: Eosinophilic pleural effusion and presence of filariform larva of Strongyloides stercoralis in a patient with metastatic squamous cell carcinoma deposits in the pleura. Indian J Chest Dis Allied Sci. 2003, 45 (2): 121-124.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Rajapurkar M, Hegde U, Rokhade M, Gang S, Gohel K: Respiratory hyperinfection with Strongyloides stercoralis in a patient with renal failure. Nat Clin Pract Nephrol. 2007, 3 (10): 573-577. 10.1038/ncpneph0598.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Reddy IS, Swarnalata G: Fatal disseminated strongyloidiasis in patients on immunosuppressive therapy: report of two cases. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol. 2005, 71 (1): 38-40. 10.4103/0378-6323.13785.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Sathe PA, Madiwale CV: Strongyloidiasis hyperinfection in a patient with membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis. J Postgrad Med. 2006, 52 (3): 221-222.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Satyanarayana S, Nema S, Kalghatgi AT, Mehta SR, Rai R, Duggal R, Bhardwaj JR: Disseminated Strongyloides stercoralis in AIDS: a report from India. Indian J Pathol Microbiol. 2005, 48 (4): 472-474.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Sekhar U, Madan M, Ranjitham M, Abraham G, Eapen G: Strongyloides hyperinfection syndrome–an unappreciated opportunistic infection. J Assoc Physicians India. 2000, 48 (10): 1017-1019.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Soman R, Vaideeswar P, Shah H, Almeida AF: A 34-year-old renal transplant recipient with high-grade fever and progressive shortness of breath. J Postgrad Med. 2002, 48 (3): 191-196.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Sreenivas DV, Kumar A, Kumar YR, Bharavi C, Sundaram C, Gayathri K: Intestinal strongyloidiasis–a rare opportunistic infection. Indian J Gastroenterol: J Indian Soc Gastroenterol. 1997, 16 (3): 105-106.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Vigg A, Mantri S, Reddy VA, Biyani V: Acute respiratory distress syndrome due to Strongyloides stercoralis in non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Indian J Chest Dis Allied Sci. 2006, 48 (1): 67-69.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Bava AJ, Troncoso AR: Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection in a patient with AIDS. J Int Assoc Physicians AIDS Care (Chic). 2009, 8 (4): 235-238. 10.1177/1545109709336882.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Galimberti R, Ponton A, Zaputovich FA, Velasquez L, Galimberti G, Torre A, Kowalczuk A: Disseminated strongyloidiasis in immunocompromised patients–report of three cases. Int J Dermatol. 2009, 48 (9): 975-978. 10.1111/j.1365-4632.2009.04082.x.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Rivero FD, Kremer LE, Allende L, Casero RD: [Strongyloides stercoralis and HIV: a case report of an indigenous disseminated infection from non-endemic area]. Rev Argent Microbiol. 2006, 38 (3): 137-139.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Taranto NJ: [Strongyloides stercoralis. Report of a case and review of the literature]. Acta Gastroenterol Latinoam. 1995, 25 (2): 113-120.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Trione N, Corti M, Castello T, Abuin JC, Bellegarde E: [Disseminated infection due to strongyloides stercoralis in AIDS patients. A report of 2 cases]. Acta Gastroenterol Latinoam. 2001, 31 (5): 399-402.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Dulley FL, Costa S, Cosentino R, Gamba C, Saboya R: Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection after allogeneic stem cell transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2009, 43 (9): 741-742. 10.1038/bmt.2008.383.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Salluh JI, Feres GA, Velasco E, Holanda GS, Toscano L, Soares M: Successful use of parenteral ivermectin in an immunosuppressed patient with disseminated strongyloidiasis and septic shock. Intensive Care Med. 2005, 31 (9): 1292-10.1007/s00134-005-2725-y.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. German JC, Flores JH, Chiesura G, Ruiz EM, Flores SS, Laudanna AA: [Fatal strongyloidiasis in an immunodepressed patient following renal transplantation]. Revista do Hospital das Clinicas. 1992, 47 (1): 31-33.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Lambertucci JR, Leao FC, Barbosa AJ: Gastric strongyloidiasis and infection by the human T cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1). Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2003, 36 (4): 541-542. 10.1590/S0037-86822003000400021.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Lambertucci JR, Westin MR, Barbosa AJ: Severe gastrointestinal strongyloidiasis. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2005, 38 (4): 365-366. 10.1590/S0037-86822005000400023.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Rodrigues MA, Froes RC, Anefalos A, Kobayasi S: Invasive enteritis by Strongyloides stercoralis presenting as acute abdominal distress under corticosteroid therapy. Revista do Hospital das Clinicas. 2001, 56 (4): 103-106. 10.1590/S0041-87812001000400002.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Porto MA, Alcantara LM, Leal M, Castro N, Carvalho EM: Atypical clinical presentation of strongyloidiasis in a patient co-infected with human T cell lymphotrophic virus type I. Am J Trop Med H. 2005, 72 (2): 124-125.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Siciliano RF, Mascheretti M, Ho YL, Gryschek RC: Severe strongyloidiasis in AIDS: is steroid therapy guilty again?. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2008, 49 (3): 333-334. 10.1097/QAI.0b013e31817bedde.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Tabacof J, Feher O, Katz A, Simon SD, Gansl RC: Strongyloides hyperinfection in two patients with lymphoma, purulent meningitis, and sepsis. Cancer. 1991, 68 (8): 1821-1823. 10.1002/1097-0142(19911015)68:8<1821::AID-CNCR2820680829>3.0.CO;2-J.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Takayanagui OM, Lofrano MM, Araugo MB, Chimelli L: Detection of Strongyloides stercoralis in the cerebrospinal fluid of a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Neurology. 1995, 45 (1): 193-194. 10.1212/WNL.45.1.193.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Vilela EG, Clemente WT, Mira RR, Torres HO, Veloso LF, Fonseca LP, De Carvalho EFLR, Franca MC, Lima AS: Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection syndrome after liver transplantation: case report and literature review. Transplant Inf Dis: J Transplant Soc. 2009, 11 (2): 132-136. 10.1111/j.1399-3062.2008.00350.x.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. De Goede E, Martens M, Van Rooy S, VanMoerkerke I: A case of systemic strongyloidiasis in an ex-coal miner with idiopathic colitis. European J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 1995, 7 (8): 807-809.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Mora CS, Segami MI, Hidalgo JA: Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection in systemic lupus erythematosus and the antiphospholipid syndrome. Semin Arthritis Rheu. 2006, 36 (3): 135-143. 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2006.06.001.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Zavala J, Sanchez L, Carillo L, Cueva A, Balbin G, Quispe V: [Atypical presentations of strongyloidiasis: a report of 8 cases]. Rev Gastroenterol Peru. 1994, 14 (1): 15-21.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Adetiloye VA: A case of fatal gastrointestinal strongyloidiasis in an otherwise healthy Nigerian, masquerading as gastric outlet obstruction. Trop Geogr Med. 1992, 44 (1–2): 60-62.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Coovadia YM, Rajput MC, Bhana RH: Disseminated strongyloidiasis in a diabetic patient. Trop Geogr Med. 1993, 45 (4): 179-180.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Daubenton JD, Buys HA, Hartley PS: Disseminated strongyloidiasis in a child with lymphoblastic lymphoma. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol: Am Soc Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 1998, 20 (3): 260-263. 10.1097/00043426-199805000-00014.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Haddow LJ, Mahlakwane MS, Ramdial PK, Moosa MY: Histopathology of Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection during immune reconstitution in an HIV-infected patient. AIDS. 2009, 23 (12): 1609-1611. 10.1097/QAD.0b013e32832c41f4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Jamil SA, Hilton E: The Strongyloides hyperinfection syndrome. New York State J. 1992, 92 (2): 67-68.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Purvis RS, Beightler EL, Diven DG, Sanchez RL, Tyring SK: Strongyloides hyperinfection presenting with petechiae and purpura. Nt J Dermatol. 1992, 31 (3): 169-171. 10.1111/j.1365-4362.1992.tb03925.x.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Boken DJ, Leoni PA, Preheim LC: Treatment of Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection syndrome with thiabendazole administered per rectum. Clin Infect Dis: Infect Dis Soc Am. 1993, 16 (1): 123-126. 10.1093/clinids/16.1.123.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Celedon JC, Mathur-Wagh U, Fox J, Garcia R, Wiest PM: Systemic strongyloidiasis in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. A report of 3 cases and review of the literature. Medicine. 1994, 73 (5): 256-263.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. El Masry HZ, O’Donnell J: Fatal stongyloides hyperinfection in heart transplantation. J Heart Lung Transpl: Int Soc Heart Transpl. 2005, 24 (11): 1980-1983. 10.1016/j.healun.2005.04.005.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Foreman EB, Abraham PJ, Garland JL: Not your typical strongyloides infection: a literature review and case study. South Med J. 2006, 99 (8): 847-852. 10.1097/01.smj.0000203813.70054.3c.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Friedenberg F, Wongpraparut N, Fischer RA, Gubernick J, Zaeri N, Eiger G, Ozden Z: Duodenal obstruction caused by Strongyloides stercoralis enteritis in an HTLV-1-infected host. Digest Dis Sci. 1999, 44 (6): 1184-1188. 10.1023/A:1026636509713.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Fusco DN, Downs JA, Satlin MJ, Pahuja M, Ramos L, Barie PS, Fleckenstein L, Murray HW: Non-oral treatment with ivermectin for disseminated strongyloidiasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2010, 83 (4): 879-883. 10.4269/ajtmh.2010.10-0258.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  55. Nomura J, Rekrut K: Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection syndrome in a patient with AIDS: diagnosis by fluorescent microscopy. Clin inf dis: Inf Dis Soc Am. 1996, 22 (4): 736-

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Goldman DE, Grier JF, Ball BE, Abreo F, Abreo KD: A 72-year-old woman with non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, dyspnea, vomiting, diarrhea, and eosinophilia. J La State Med Soc: Louisiana State Med Soc. 1995, 147 (6): 243-250.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Gordon SM, Gal AA, Solomon AR, Bryan JA: Disseminated strongyloidiasis with cutaneous manifestations in an immunocompromised host. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1994, 31 (2 Pt 1): 255-259.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Gulick RM: Reappearance of a remotely acquired infection. AIDS Clin Care. 1997, 9 (9): 70-

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Gutierrez Y, Bhatia P, Garbadawala ST, Dobson JR, Wallace TM, Carey TE: Strongyloides stercoralis eosinophilic granulomatous enterocolitis. Am J Surg Pathol. 1996, 20 (5): 603-612. 10.1097/00000478-199605000-00007.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Hamilton KW, Abt PL, Rosenbach MA, Bleicher MB, Levine MS, Mehta J, Montgomery SP, Hasz RD, Bono BR, Tetzlaff MT, et al: Donor-derived Strongyloides stercoralis infections in renal transplant recipients. Transplantation. 2011, 91 (9): 1019-1024. 10.1097/TP.0b013e3182115b7b.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Hong IS, Zaidi SY, McEvoy P, Neafie RC: Diagnosis of Strongyloides stercoralis in a peritoneal effusion from an HIV-seropositive man. A case report. Acta Cytol. 2004, 48 (2): 211-214. 10.1159/000326318.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Jain AK, Agarwal SK, El-Sadr W: Streptococcus bovis bacteremia and meningitis associated with Strongyloides stercoralis colitis in a patient infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Cli inf dis: Inf Dis Soc Am. 1994, 18 (2): 253-254.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Kao D, Murakawa GJ, Kerschmann R, Berger T: Disseminated strongyloidiasis in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch Dermatol. 1996, 132 (8): 977-978. 10.1001/archderm.1996.03890320127027.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Kothary NN, Muskie JM, Mathur SC: Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection. Radiographics: Radiological SocNorth Am Inc. 1999, 19 (4): 1077-1081.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Lambroza A, Dannenberg AJ: Eosinophilic ascites due to hyperinfection with Strongyloides stercoralis. Am J Gastroenterol. 1991, 86 (1): 89-91.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Lemos LB, Qu Z, Laucirica R, Fred HL: Hyperinfection syndrome in strongyloidiasis: report of two cases. Ann Diagn Pathol. 2003, 7 (2): 87-94.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Lin AL, Kessimian N, Benditt JO: Restrictive pulmonary disease due to interlobular septal fibrosis associated with disseminated infection by Strongyloides stercoralis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995, 151 (1): 205-209.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Link K, Orenstein R: Bacterial complications of strongyloidiasis: Streptococcus bovis meningitis. South Med J. 1999, 92 (7): 728-731. 10.1097/00007611-199907000-00016.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Malhotra A, Kochar T, Rangasetty UC: A perfect host. Intern Med J. 2008, 38 (11): 869-870.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Schaeffer MW, Buell JF, Gupta M, Conway GD, Akhter SA, Wagoner LE: Strongyloides hyperinfection syndrome after heart transplantation: case report and review of the literature. J Heart Lung Transpl: Int Soc Heart Transpl. 2004, 23 (7): 905-911. 10.1016/j.healun.2003.06.008.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Tarr PE, Miele PS, Peregoy KS, Smith MA, Neva FA, Lucey DR: Case report: Rectal adminstration of ivermectin to a patient with Strongyloides hyperinfection syndrome. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2003, 68 (4): 453-455.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Marty FM, Lowry CM, Rodriguez M, Milner DA, Pieciak WS, Sinha A, Fleckenstein L, Baden LR: Treatment of human disseminated strongyloidiasis with a parenteral veterinary formulation of ivermectin. Clin Inf Dis: Inf Dis Soc Am. 2005, 41 (1): e5-e8.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Miller MA, Church LW, Salgado CD: Strongyloides hyperinfection: a treatment dilemma. Am J Med Sci. 2008, 336 (4): 358-361. 10.1097/MAJ.0b013e31815cff89.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Mizuno S, Iida T, Zendejas I, Martin TD, Schain DC, Turner B, Fujita S: Strongyloides hyperinfection syndrome following simultaneous heart and kidney transplantation. Transplant Int: J European Soc Organ Transplant. 2009, 22 (2): 251-253. 10.1111/j.1432-2277.2008.00767.x.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Morgello S, Soifer FM, Lin CS, Wolfe DE: Central nervous system Strongyloides stercoralis in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: a report of two cases and review of the literature. Acta Neuropathol. 1993, 86 (3): 285-288. 10.1007/BF00304143.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Morrell MR, Dallas J, Kollef MH: A 50-year-old woman with abdominal pain and respiratory failure 3 months after kidney transplantation. Chest. 2008, 134 (2): 442-446. 10.1378/chest.07-2754.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Newton RC, Limpuangthip P, Greenberg S, Gam A, Neva FA: Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection in a carrier of HTLV-I virus with evidence of selective immunosuppression. Am J Med. 1992, 92 (2): 202-208. 10.1016/0002-9343(92)90113-P.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Gupta S, Jain A, Fanning TV, Couriel DR, Jimenez CA, Eapen GA: An unusual cause of alveolar hemorrhage post hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: a case report. BMC Cancer. 2006, 6: 87-10.1186/1471-2407-6-87.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  79. Perazella MA, Sadigh M: Acute nonspecific illness in an AIDS patients with dysphagia. Hosp Pract (Off Ed). 1994, 29 (11): 39-43, 47

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Phelps KR, Ginsberg SS, Cunningham AW, Tschachler E, Dosik H: Case report: adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma associated with recurrent strongyloides hyperinfection. Am J Med Sci. 1991, 302 (4): 224-228.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Qazilbash MH, Ueno NT, Hosing C, De Lima M, Cortes J, Massaro A, Rivera Z, Deavers M, Adachi JA, Champlin RE: Strongyloidiasis after unrelated nonmyeloablative allogeneic stem cell transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2006, 38 (5): 393-394. 10.1038/sj.bmt.1705448.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Purvis RS, Beightler EL, Diven DG, Sanchez RL, Tyring SK: Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection. Int J Dermatol. 1992, 31 (3): 160-164. 10.1111/j.1365-4362.1992.tb03918.x.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Krishnamurthy R, Dincer HE, Whittemore D: Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection in a patient with rheumatoid arthritis after anti-TNF-alpha therapy. J Clin Rheumatology: Rheumatic & musculoskeletal dis. 2007, 13 (3): 150-152.

    Google Scholar 

  84. Reddy TS, Myers JW: Syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone and nonpalpable purpura in a woman with Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection. Am Journal Med Sci. 2003, 325 (5): 288-291. 10.1097/00000441-200305000-00007.

    Google Scholar 

  85. Gorman SR, Craven DE: Images in clinical medicine. Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection. New England J Med. 2008, 359 (11): e12-10.1056/NEJMicm066791.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Reiman S, Fisher R, Dodds C, Trinh C, Laucirica R, Whigham CJ: Mesenteric arteriographic findings in a patient with strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection. JVIR. 2002, 13 (6): 635-638. 10.1016/S1051-0443(07)61660-1.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Roxby AC, Gottlieb GS, Limaye AP: Strongyloidiasis in transplant patients. Clin Inf Dis: Inf Dis So Am. 2009, 49 (9): 1411-1423.

    Google Scholar 

  88. Patel G, Arvelakis A, Sauter BV, Gondolesi GE, Caplivski D, Huprikar S: Strongyloides hyperinfection syndrome after intestinal transplantation. Transpl inf Dis: J Transplant Soc. 2008, 10 (2): 137-141. 10.1111/j.1399-3062.2007.00256.x.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Schindzielorz A, Edberg SC, Bia FJ: Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection and central nervous system involvement in a patient with relapsing polychondritis. Southern Med J. 1991, 84 (8): 1055-1057. 10.1097/00007611-199108000-00030.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Lichtenberger P, Rosa-Cunha I, Morris M, Nishida S, Akpinar E, Gaitan J, Tzakis A, Doblecki-Lewis S: Hyperinfection strongyloidiasis in a liver transplant recipient treated with parenteral ivermectin. Transplant Inf Disease: J Transplant SocS. 2009, 11 (2): 137-142. 10.1111/j.1399-3062.2008.00358.x.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Agarwal VK, Khurana HS, Le HX, Mathisen G, Kamangar N: 30-year-old HIV-positive female with diffuse alveolar hemorrhage. J Int Care Med. 2009, 24 (3): 200-204. 10.1177/0885066609332583.

    Google Scholar 

  92. Balagopal A, Mills L, Shah A, Subramanian A: Detection and treatment of Strongyloides hyperinfection syndrome following lung transplantation. Transplant Inf Dis: J Transplant Soc. 2009, 11 (2): 149-154. 10.1111/j.1399-3062.2009.00375.x.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Simpson WG, Gerhardstein DC, Thompson JR: Disseminated Strongyloides stercoralis infection. Southern Med J. 1993, 86 (7): 821-825. 10.1097/00007611-199307000-00022.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Huston JM, Eachempati SR, Rodney JR, Cayci C, Fusco D, Mathew M, Shou J, Goldstein MJ, Kapur S, Barie PS: Treatment of Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection-associated septic shock and acute respiratory distress syndrome with drotrecogin alfa (activated) in a renal transplant recipient. Transplant Inf Dis: J Transplant Soc. 2009, 11 (3): 277-280. 10.1111/j.1399-3062.2009.00386.x.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Khasawneh F, Sreedhar R, Chundi V: Strongyloides hyperinfection: an unusual cause of respiratory failure. Ann Intern Med. 2009, 150 (8): 570-571.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Thompson JR, Berger R: Fatal adult respiratory distress syndrome following successful treatment of pulmonary strongyloidiasis. Chest. 1991, 99 (3): 772-774. 10.1378/chest.99.3.772.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Aregawi D, Lopez D, Wick M, Scheld WM, Schiff D: Disseminated strongyloidiasis complicating glioblastoma therapy: a case report. J Neurooncol. 2009, 94 (3): 439-443. 10.1007/s11060-009-9878-4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Apewokin S, Steciuk M, Griffin S, Jhala D: Strongyloides hyperinfection diagnosed by bronchoalveolar lavage in an immunocompromized host. Cytopathology: Journal of the British Soc Clin Cytol. 2010, 21 (5): 345-347. 10.1111/j.1365-2303.2010.00765.x.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Upadhyay D, Corbridge T, Jain M, Shah R: Pulmonary hyperinfection syndrome with Strongyloides stercoralis. Am J Med. 2001, 111 (2): 167-169.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Basile A, Simzar S, Bentow J, Antelo F, Shitabata P, Peng SK, Craft N: Disseminated Strongyloides stercoralis: hyperinfection during medical immunosuppression. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2010, 63 (5): 896-902. 10.1016/j.jaad.2009.09.037.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Vadlamudi RS, Van Dort M, Barklow T, Byrd RP, Moorman JP: Strongyloides hyperinfection syndrome complicating (ectopic) Cushing syndrome. Southern Med J. 2008, 101 (7): 750-752. 10.1097/SMJ.0b013e31817a836e.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Wang BY, Krishnan S, Isenberg HD: Mortality associated with concurrent strongyloidosis and cytomegalovirus infection in a patient on steroid therapy. Mount Sinai J Med New York. 1999, 66 (2): 128-132.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Williams BT, Guerry-Force ML: Disseminated strongyloidiasis in a World War II Veteran with metastatic undifferentiated carcinoma of neuroendocrine type. Southern Med J. 1992, 85 (10): 1023-1026. 10.1097/00007611-199210000-00025.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Wirk B, Wingard JR: Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection in hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Transplant Inf Dis: J Transplant Soc. 2009, 11 (2): 143-148. 10.1111/j.1399-3062.2008.00360.x.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Grein JD, Mathisen GE, Donovan S, Fleckenstein L: Serum ivermectin levels after enteral and subcutaneous administration for Strongyloides hyperinfection: a case report. Scandinavian J Inf Dis. 2010, 42 (3): 234-236. 10.3109/00365540903443165.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Martin SJ, Cohen PR, MacFarlane DF, Grossman ME: Cutaneous manifestations of Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection in an HIV-seropositive patient. Skinmed. 2011, 9 (3): 199-202.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Weiser JA, Scully BE, Bulman WA, Husain S, Grossman ME: Periumbilical parasitic thumbprint purpura: strongyloides hyperinfection syndrome acquired from a cadaveric renal transplant. Transplant Inf Dis: J Transplant Soc. 2011, 13 (1): 58-62. 10.1111/j.1399-3062.2010.00516.x.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Lessnau KD, Can S, Talavera W: Disseminated Strongyloides stercoralis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. Treatment failure and a review of the literature. Chest. 1993, 104 (1): 119-122. 10.1378/chest.104.1.119.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Ali HA, Walkenstein M: Bilateral nodular pulmonary infiltrates in an immunocompromised host. Thorax. 2008, 63 (8): 746-753. 10.1136/thx.2007.090100.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Hughes R, McGuire G: Delayed diagnosis of disseminated strongyloidiasis. Intensive Care Med. 2001, 27 (1): 310-312. 10.1007/s001340000798.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Lagace-Wiens PR, Harding GK: A Canadian immigrant with coinfection of Strongyloides stercoralis and human T-lymphotropic virus 1. CMAJ. 2007, 177 (5): 451-453.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  112. Leung V, Al-Rawahi GN, Grant J, Fleckenstein L, Bowie W: Case report: failure of subcutaneous ivermectin in treating Strongyloides hyperinfection. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2008, 79 (6): 853-855.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Lim S, Katz K, Krajden S, Fuksa M, Keystone JS, Kain KC: Complicated and fatal Strongyloides infection in Canadians: risk factors, diagnosis and management. CMAJ. 2004, 171 (5): 479-484.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  114. Peters L, McCarthy AE, Faught C: Secondary Strongyloides stercoralis prophylaxis in patients with human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 infection: report of two cases. IJID: Int Soc Inf Dis. 2009, 13 (6): e501-e503. 10.1016/j.ijid.2009.02.009.

    Google Scholar 

  115. Rawat B, Simons ME: Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfestation. Another cause of focal hepatic lesions. Clin Imaging. 1993, 17 (4): 274-275. 10.1016/0899-7071(93)90069-Y.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Turner SA, Maclean JD, Fleckenstein L, Greenaway C: Parenteral administration of ivermectin in a patient with disseminated strongyloidiasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2005, 73 (5): 911-914.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Vandebosch S, Mana F, Goossens A, Urbain D: Strongyloides Stercoralis infection associated with repititive bacterial meningitis and SIADH: a case report. Acta gastro-enterologica Belgica. 2008, 71 (4): 413-417.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Collet F, Favory R, Augusto D, Moukassa D, Dutoit E, Mathieu D: [Massive haemoptysis associated with pulmonary Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfestation]. Rev Mal Respir. 2005, 22 (5 Pt 1): 815-818.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Couprie R, Maslo C, Bouchaud O, Matheron S, Saimot AG, Coulaud JP: [Disseminated anguilluliasis in HIV infection. A new case]. Presse Med. 1993, 22 (20): 968-

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Daoudal P, Ribier G, Numeric P, Desbois N, Ramialison C: [Disseminated strongyloidiasis, a rare cause of multiple organ failure]. Presse Med. 2002, 31 (26): 1216-1217.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Gloro R, Ollivier-Hourmand I, Morin-Fatome A, Rousselot P, Le Moel G, Dao T: [Disseminated strongyloidiasis associated with pulmonary fibrosis and gastrointestinal bleeding]. Gastroenterol Clin Biol. 2004, 28 (12): 1287-1290. 10.1016/S0399-8320(04)95223-2.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Hovette P, Tuan JF, Camara P, Lejean Y, Lo N, Colbacchini P: [Pulmonary strongyloidiasis complicated by E. coli meningitis in a HIV-1 and HTLV-1 positive patient]. Presse Med. 2002, 31 (22): 1021-1023.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Marsan C, Marais MH, Sollet JP, Le Turdu F, Guerin PH, Garcia R, Bleichner G: Disseminated strongyloidiasis: a case report. Cytopathology: J British Soc Clin Cytol. 1993, 4 (2): 123-126. 10.1111/j.1365-2303.1993.tb00525.x.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Mattioni S, Valin N, Cracco C, Thellier M, Danis M, Caumes E: Fatal relapse of disseminated strongyloidiasis in an HIV-positive patient, despite ivermectin treatment. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2008, 102 (8): 693-698. 10.1179/136485908X337616.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Mejia JH, Denis M, Leleu G, Roux P, Mayaud C, Akoun G: [Acute respiratory insufficiency caused by hyperinfestation with strongyloides. BALF diagnosis and favourable outcome]. Rev Pneumol Clin. 1992, 48 (2): 75-78.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Pacanowski J, Santos MD, Roux A, LEM C, Guillot J, Lavarde V, Cornet M: Subcutaneous ivermectin as a safe salvage therapy in Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection syndrome: a case report. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2005, 73 (1): 122-124.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Pinatelle P, De Monbrison F, Bedock B: [Disseminated strongyloidiasis with parasitemia in a patient under corticosteroid-treatment]. Med Mal Infect. 2009, 39 (4): 267-269. 10.1016/j.medmal.2008.11.005.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Quinio D, Moalic E, Masure O, Renault A, Le Flohic AM: [Pulmonary manifestations of malignant strongyloidiasis]. Rev Mal Respir. 2002, 19 (2 Pt1): 265-266.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Said S, Nevez G, Moriniere P, Fournier A, Raccurt CP: [Hemodialysis and strongyloidiasis: a presumed cause of eosinophilia able to mask the other]. Nephrologie. 1999, 20 (6): 343-346.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Hauber HP, Galle J, Chiodini PL, Rupp J, Birke R, Vollmer E, Zabel P, Lange C: Fatal outcome of a hyperinfection syndrome despite successful eradication of Strongyloides with subcutaneous ivermectin. Infection. 2005, 33 (5–6): 383-386.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Steiner B, Riebold D, Wolff D, Freund M, Reisinger EC: Strongyloides stercoralis eggs in a urethral smear after bone marrow transplantation. Clin Inf Dis: Inf Dis Soc Am. 2002, 34 (9): 1280-1281.

    Google Scholar 

  132. Almasidou D, Maniatis M, Vassiou K, Damani E, Vakalis N, Fesoulidis I, Gourgoulianis KI: Strongyloides hyperinfection in a patient with sarcoidosis. Respirology. 2003, 8 (1): 105-106. 10.1046/j.1440-1843.2003.00429.x.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Bamias G, Toskas A, Psychogiou M, Delladetsima I, Siakavellas SI, Dimarogona K, Daikos GL: Strongyloides hyperinfection syndrome presenting as enterococcal meningitis in a low-endemicity area. Virulence. 2010, 1 (5): 468-470. 10.4161/viru.1.5.12703.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Kosmadakis G, Georgoulias C, Filiopoulos V, Stefanou I, Smirloglou D, Michail S: Lethal Strongyloides stercoralis superinfection in an immunocompromised patient. Ren Fail. 2010, 32 (6): 750-752. 10.3109/0886022X.2010.486490.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Casati A, Cornero G, Muttini S, Tresoldi M, Gallioli G, Torri G: Hyperacute pneumonitis in a patient with overwhelming Strongyloides stercoralis infection. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 1996, 13 (5): 498-501. 10.1097/00003643-199609000-00014.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Gulletta M, Chatel G, Pavia M, Signorini L, Tebaldi A, Bombana E, Carosi G: AIDS and strongyloidiasis. Int J STD AIDS. 1998, 9 (7): 427-429. 10.1258/0956462981922421.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Mariotta S, Pallone G, Li Bianchi E, Gilardi G, Bisetti A: Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection in a case of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Panminerva Med. 1996, 38 (1): 45-47.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Pampiglione S, Pampiglione E, Di Stefano MA: [Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection with encephalitis manifestations]. Pathologica. 1993, 85 (1096): 195-204.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Rotolo U, Scarlata F, Giordano S, Tortorici C, Bono L, Coglitore M, Faraci C, Infurnari L, Rubino R, Romano A: [Nephrotic syndrome and Gram-negative sepsis in a patient with strongyloidiasis: a case report]. Le infezioni in medicina: rivista periodica di eziologia, epidemiologia, diagnostica, clinica e terapia delle patologie infettive. 2007, 15 (1): 59-62.

    Google Scholar 

  140. Sidoni A, Polidori GA, Alberti PF, Scionti L: Fatal Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection diagnosed by Papanicolaou-stained sputum smears. Pathologica. 1994, 86 (1): 87-90.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Lanzafame M, Faggian F, Lattuada E, Antolini D, Vento S: Strongyloidiasis in an HIV-1-infected patient after highly active antiretroviral therapy-induced immune restoration. J Infect Dis. 2005, 191 (6): 1027-10.1086/428099.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Brugemann J, Kampinga GA, Riezebos-Brilman A, Stek CJ, Edel JP, van der Bij W, Sprenger HG, Zijlstra F: Two donor-related infections in a heart transplant recipient: one common, the other a tropical surprise. J Heart Lung Transplant: Int Soc Heart Transplant. 2010, 29 (12): 1433-1437. 10.1016/j.healun.2010.08.002.

    Google Scholar 

  143. Grijsen M, van den Berk G, Hoekstra E, Terpstra W, Veldman S, Jansen J: Intestinal strongyloidiasis as a presenting symptom of HTLV-1-associated adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma. Endoscopy. 2009, 41 (Suppl 2): E271-E272.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Janssen R, Vlaminckx BJ, Seldenrijk CA, Voorn GP, Grutters JC: Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection mimicking accelerated form of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Lancet Inf Dis. 2008, 8 (7): 456-10.1016/S1473-3099(08)70155-5.

    Google Scholar 

  145. Van Hattem S, Schuttelaar ML: Disseminated strongyloidiasis caused by heart donor-to-host transmission presenting with purpura. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2010, 35 (4): e149-e150. 10.1111/j.1365-2230.2009.03740.x.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Gomez J, Plaza V, Munoz C, Franquet T: [Hyperinfection by Strongyloides stercoralis and other pathogens in a patient with chronic obstructive airways disease]. Medicina clinica. 1997, 109 (15): 609-

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Llagunes J, Mateo E, Pena JJ, Carmona P, De Andres J: [Hyperinfection caused by Strongyloides stercoralis]. Medicina intensiva/Sociedad Espanola de Medicina Intensiva y Unidades Coronarias. 2010, 34 (5): 353-356. 10.1016/j.medin.2009.06.006.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Lopez Gallardo A, Diez Garcia F, Yelamos F, Orozco F: [Hyperinfection by Strongyloides stercoralis in a patient with ulcerative colitis]. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 1997, 15 (5): 273-

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Mayayo E, Gomez-Aracil V, Azua-Blanco J, Azua-Romeo J, Capilla J, Mayayo R: Strongyloides stercolaris infection mimicking a malignant tumour in a non-immunocompromised patient. Diagnosis by bronchoalveolar cytology. J Clin Pathol. 2005, 58 (4): 420-422. 10.1136/jcp.2004.017756.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  150. Rodriguez-Hernandez MJ, Ruiz-Perez-Pipaon M, Canas E, Bernal C, Gavilan F: Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection transmitted by liver allograft in a transplant recipient. Am J Transplant: J Am Soc Transplant Am Soc Transplant Sur. 2009, 9 (11): 2637-2640. 10.1111/j.1600-6143.2009.02828.x.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Rojo-Marcos G, Cuadros-Gonzalez J, Gonzalez-Juarez MJ, Gomez-Ayerbe C: [Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection syndrome in a Colombian patient receiving immunosuppressive treatment]. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 2009, 27 (7): 432-434. 10.1016/j.eimc.2008.11.015.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Sauca Subias G, Barrufet Barque P, Besa Beringues A, Rodriguez Ramos E: [Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome]. An Med Interna. 2005, 22 (3): 139-141.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  153. Tirado MD, Gil M, Galiano J, Pardo F, Moreno R, Del Busto AG, Sabater S, Gomila B: [Respiratory and renal insufficiency in a COPD patient receiving corticoid treatment]. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 2002, 20 (8): 401-402.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Tornero C, Galan A, Garrigos E, Ramos JA, Pastor A: [Hyperinfection by S. stercoralis: membranous glomerulonephritis, double bacteremia and petechiae exanthema]. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 1998, 16 (10): 495-496.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Troncoso Garcia E, Munoz Medina L, Callejas Rubio JL, Lopez Ruz MA: [Klebsiella pneumoniae meningitis, Strongyloides stercoralis infection and HTLV-1]. Medicina clinica. 2000, 115 (4): 158-

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Pusztaszeri M, Bouzourene H: [Intestinal and disseminated strongyloidosis: two case studies]. Ann Pathol. 2005, 25 (4): 322-326. 10.1016/S0242-6498(05)80137-3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Brown M, Cartledge JD, Miller RF: Dissemination of Strongyloides stercoralis as an immune restoration phenomenon in an HIV-1-infected man on antiretroviral therapy. Int J STD AIDS. 2006, 17 (8): 560-561. 10.1258/095646206778145712.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. Chiodini PL, Reid AJ, Wiselka MJ, Firmin R, Foweraker J: Parenteral ivermectin in Strongyloides hyperinfection. Lancet. 2000, 355 (9197): 43-44. 10.1016/S0140-6736(99)02744-0.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Feely NM, Waghorn DJ, Dexter T, Gallen I, Chiodini P: Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection: difficulties in diagnosis and treatment. Anaesthesia. 2010, 65 (3): 298-301. 10.1111/j.1365-2044.2009.06196.x.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. Gill GV, Beeching NJ, Khoo S, Bailey JW, Partridge S, Blundell JW, Luksza AR: A British Second World War veteran with disseminated strongyloidiasis. T Roy Soc Trop Med H. 2004, 98 (6): 382-386. 10.1016/j.trstmh.2003.11.002.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Harcourt-Webster JN, Scaravilli F, Darwish AH: Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection in an HIV positive patient. J Clin Pathol. 1991, 44 (4): 346-348. 10.1136/jcp.44.4.346.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  162. Orlent H, Crawley C, Cwynarski K, Dina R, Apperley J: Strongyloidiasis pre and post autologous peripheral blood stem cell transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2003, 32 (1): 115-117. 10.1038/sj.bmt.1704104.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  163. Pagliuca A: Strongyloides hyperinfection in adult T-cell leukaemia/lymphoma. British J Haematol. 1999, 105 (1): 1-10.1111/j.1365-2141.1999.01401.x.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. Rahim S, Drabu Y, Jarvis K, Melville D: Strongyloidiasis: a mistaken diagnosis and a fatal outcome in a patient with diarrhoea. Trans R Soc Trop Med H. 2005, 99 (3): 215-217. 10.1016/j.trstmh.2004.08.003.

    Google Scholar 

  165. Heath T, Riminton S, Garsia R, MacLeod C: Systemic strongyloidiasis complicating HIV: a promising response to ivermectin. Int J STD AIDS. 1996, 7 (4): 294-296. 10.1258/0956462961917843.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  166. Lim L, Biggs BA: Fatal disseminated strongyloidiasis in a previously treated patient. Med J Australia. 2001, 174 (7): 355-356.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. Mak DB: Recurrent bacterial meningitis associated with strongyloides hyperinfection. Med J Australia. 1993, 159 (5): 354-

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  168. Mak DB: Recurrent bacterial meningitis associated with strongyloides hyperinfection. Med J Aust. 1993, 159 (5): 354-

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  169. Thomas MC, Costello SA: Disseminated strongyloidiasis arising from a single dose of dexamethasone before stereotactic radiosurgery. Int J Clin Prac. 1998, 52 (7): 520-521.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  170. Kanazawa S, Yamaguchi K, Kinoshita Y, Nomura S: Adult T-cell leukaemia and strongyloidiasis. Eur J Cancer Care (Engl). 2008, 17 (2): 209-210. 10.1111/j.1365-2354.2007.00836.x.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  171. Kinjo T, Tsuhako K, Nakazato I, Ito E, Sato Y, Koyanagi Y, Iwamasa T: Extensive intra-alveolar haemorrhage caused by disseminated strongyloidiasis. Int J Parasitol. 1998, 28 (2): 323-330. 10.1016/S0020-7519(97)00162-8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  172. Miyazaki M, Tamura M, Kabashima N, Serino R, Shibata T, Miyamoto T, Furuno Y, Nishio T, Ohara J, Sakurai T, et al: Minimal change nephrotic syndrome in a patient with strongyloidiasis. Clin Exp Nephrol. 2010, 14 (4): 367-371. 10.1007/s10157-010-0273-4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Mori S, Konishi T, Matsuoka K, Deguchi M, Ohta M, Mizuno O, Ueno T, Okinaka T, Nishimura Y, Ito N, et al: Strongyloidiasis associated with nephrotic syndrome. Intern Med. 1998, 37 (7): 606-610. 10.2169/internalmedicine.37.606.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  174. Morimoto J, Kaneoka H, Sasatomi Y, Sato YN, Murata T, Ogahara S, Sakata N, Takebayashi S, Naito S, Saito T: Disseminated strongyloidiasis in nephrotic syndrome. Clin Nephrol. 2002, 57 (5): 398-401.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. Satoh M, Futami A, Takahira K, Kodaira M, Tanaka T, Kuriki K, Hori E: Severe strongyloidiasis complicated by meningitis and hydrocephalus in an HTLV-1 carrier with increased proviral load. J Infect Chemother. 2003, 9 (4): 355-357. 10.1007/s10156-003-0272-4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  176. Setoyama M, Fukumaru S, Takasaki T, Yoshida H, Kanzaki T: SLE with death from acute massive pulmonary hemorrhage caused by disseminated strongyloidiasis. Scand J Rheumatol. 1997, 26 (5): 389-391. 10.3109/03009749709065706.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  177. Wong VW, Leung WK, To KF, Sung JJ: Diarrhoea and rash in a retired farmer. HKMJ, Xianggang yi xue za zhi/Hong Kong Academy of Medicine. 2005, 11 (5): 397-398.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  178. Chiu HH, Lai SL: Fatal meningoencephalitis caused by disseminated strongyloidiasis. Acta Neurol Taiwan. 2005, 14 (1): 24-27.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  179. Hsieh YP, Wen YK, Chen ML: Minimal change nephrotic syndrome in association with strongyloidiasis. Clin Nephrol. 2006, 66 (6): 459-463.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  180. Huang MS, Hwang KP, Chiang PC, Hwang JJ: Pulmonary hyperinfection with Strongyloides stercoralis. J Formos Med Asso, Taiwan yi zhi. 1996, 95 (7): 551-554.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  181. Ting YM: Pulmonary strongyloidiasis–case report of 2 cases. Kaohsiung J Med Sci. 2000, 16 (5): 269-274.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  182. Liu HC, Hsu JY, Chang KM: Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection presenting with symptoms mimicking acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. JCMA. 2009, 72 (8): 442-445.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. Hira PR, Al-Ali F, Shweiki HM, Abdella NA, Johny M, Francis I, Iqbal J, Thompson R, Nevar F: Strongyloidiasis: challenges in diagnosis and management in non-endemic Kuwait. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2004, 98 (3): 261-270. 10.1179/000349804225003299.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  184. Mokaddas EM, Shati S, Abdulla A, Nampoori NR, Iqbal J, Nair PM, Said T, Abdulhalim M, Hira PR: Fatal strongyloidiasis in three kidney recipients in Kuwait. Med Princ Pract: Int J K U, Health Sci Centre. 2009, 18 (5): 414-417.

    Google Scholar 

  185. Al Maslamani MA, Al Soub HA, Al Khal AL, Al Bozom IA, Abu Khattab MJ, Chacko KC: Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection after corticosteroid therapy: a report of two cases. Ann Saudi Med. 2009, 29 (5): 397-401. 10.4103/0256-4947.55172.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  186. Uwaydah AK, Al Qadah F: Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection in a patient with angioimmunoblastic lymphadenopathy. Postgrad Med J. 1992, 68 (806): 974-975. 10.1136/pgmj.68.806.974.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  187. Malnick S, Somin M, Beilinson N, Basevitch A, Bregman G, Zimhony O: Strongyloides hyperinfection in Ethiopian immigrants in Israel. IMAJ. 2009, 11 (11): 660-663.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  188. Somin M, Neogolani V, Zimhony O, Wolpart A, Sokolowski N, Malnick S: Fatal recurrent bacterial meningitis: a complication of chronic Strongyloides infection. Eur J Int Med. 2008, 19 (6): e42-e43. 10.1016/j.ejim.2007.07.009.

    Google Scholar 

  189. Kia EB, Rahimi HR, Mirhendi H, Nilforoushan MR, Talebi A, Zahabiun F, Kazemzadeh H, Meamar AR: A case of fatal strongyloidiasis in a patient with chronic lymphocytic leukemia and molecular characterization of the isolate. Korean J Parasitol. 2008, 46 (4): 261-263. 10.3347/kjp.2008.46.4.261.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  190. Gulbas Z, Kebapci M, Pasaoglu O, Vardareli E: Successful ivermectin treatment of hepatic strongyloidiasis presenting with severe eosinophilia. South Med J. 2004, 97 (9): 907-910. 10.1097/01.SMJ.0000139936.20116.A7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. Incani RN, Hernandez M, Cortez J, Gonzalez ME, Salazar YD: Staphylococcus warneri meningitis in a patient with Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection and lymphoma: first report of a case. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 2010, 52 (3): 169-170.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  192. Chaudhary K, Smith RJ, Himelright IM, Baddour LM: Case report: purpura in disseminated strongyloidiasis. Am J Med Sci. 1994, 308 (3): 186-191. 10.1097/00000441-199409000-00014.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  193. Davidson RA: Infection due to Strongyloides stercoralis in patients with pulmonary disease. South Med J. 1992, 85 (1): 28-31. 10.1097/00007611-199201000-00008.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  194. Kim J, Joo HS, Ko HM, Na MS, Hwang SH, Im JC: A case of fatal hyperinfective strongyloidiasis with discovery of autoinfective filariform larvae in sputum. Korean J Parasitol. 2005, 43 (2): 51-55. 10.3347/kjp.2005.43.2.51.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  195. Ochoa MD, Ramirez-Mendoza P, Ochoa G, Vargas MH, Alba-Cruz R, Rico-Mendez FG: [Bronchial nodules produced by Strongyloides stercoralis as the cause of bronchial obstruction]. Arch Bronconeumol. 2003, 39 (11): 524-526. 10.1157/13053217.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  196. Roman-Velez JM, Martinez-Camacho RN, Alayon-Laguer D, Fernandez-Gonzalez R, Reyes-Sosa R, Santos-Llanos G, Colon-Perez M, Ferrer D: An unusual presentation of alveolar hemorrhage. PCRJ: J Gen Prac Airways Group. 2009, 18 (4): 337-339.

    Google Scholar 

  197. Arsic-Arsenijevic V, Dzamic A, Dzamic Z, Milobratovic D, Tomic D: Fatal Strongyloides stercoralis infection in a young woman with lupus glomerulonephritis. J Nephrol. 2005, 18 (6): 787-790.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  198. Finkielman JD, Grinberg AR, Paz LA, Plana JL, Benchetrit GA, Nicastro MA, Roncoroni AJ: Case report: reactive hemophagocytic syndrome associated with disseminated strongyloidiasis. Am J Med Sci. 1996, 312 (1): 37-39. 10.1097/00000441-199607000-00008.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  199. Yun HR, Yoo DH, Lee HS, Kim TH, Ahn MH, Min DY, Park MH, Kim SY: Fatal strongyloides hyper-infection in a patient with rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2001, 19 (2): 224-

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  200. Koh MS, Leng PH, Eng P, Hwang J: An unusual cause of pulmonary haemorrhage in a patient with rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Acad Med Singap. 2004, 33 (3): 365-367.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  201. Leung VK, Liew CT, Sung JJ: Fatal strongyloidiasis in a patient with ulcerative colitis after corticosteroid therapy. Am J Gastroenterol. 1997, 92 (8): 1383-1384.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  202. Shorman M, Al-Tawfiq JA: Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection presenting as acute respiratory failure and Gram-negative sepsis in a patient with astrocytoma. IJID: Int Soc Inf Dis. 2009, 13 (5): e288-e291. 10.1016/j.ijid.2008.11.019.

    Google Scholar 

  203. Fasih N, Irfan S, Sheikh U, Beg MS: A fatal case of gram negative bacterial sepsis associated with disseminated strongyloidiasis in an immunocompromised patient. JPMA. 2008, 58 (2): 91-92.

    Google Scholar 

  204. Seet RC, Lau LG, Tambyah PA: Strongyloides hyperinfection and hypogammaglobulinemia. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 2005, 12 (5): 680-682.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  205. Czachor JS, Jonas AP: Transmission of Strongyloides steracolis person to person. J Travel Med. 2000, 7 (4): 211-212.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  206. Csermely L, Jaafar H, Kristensen J, Castella A, Gorka W, Chebli AA, Trab F, Alizadeh H, Hunyady B: Strongyloides hyper-infection causing life-threatening gastrointestinal bleeding. WJG. 2006, 12 (39): 6401-6404.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  207. Azira NM, Zeehaida M: Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection in a diabetic patient: case report. Trop Biomed. 2010, 27 (1): 115-119.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  208. Vithayasai N, Jennuvat S: Gastrointestinal manifestations in severe strongyloidiasis: report of 3 cases and literature review. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2010, 41 (1): 22-27.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  209. Pornsuriyasak P, Niticharoenpong K, Sakapibunnan A: Disseminated strongyloidiasis successfully treated with extended duration ivermectin combined with albendazole: a case report of intractable strongyloidiasis. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2004, 35 (3): 531-534.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  210. Suvajdzic N, Kranjcic-Zec I, Jovanovic V, Popovic D, Colovic M: Fatal strongyloidosis following corticosteroid therapy in a patient with chronic idiopathic thrombocytopenia. Haematologia. 1999, 29 (4): 323-326.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  211. Hagelskjaer LH: A fatal case of systemic strongyloidiasis and review of the literature. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis: Eur Soc Clin Microbiol. 1994, 13 (12): 1069-1074. 10.1007/BF02111831.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  212. Leang B, Lynen L, Tootill R, Griffiths S, Monchy D: Death caused by strongyloides hyperinfection in a leprosy patient on treatment for a type II leprosy reaction. Lepr Rev. 2004, 75 (4): 398-403.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  213. Wong TY, Szeto CC, Lai FF, Mak CK, Li PK: Nephrotic syndrome in strongyloidiasis: remission after eradication with anthelmintic agents. Nephron. 1998, 79 (3): 333-336. 10.1159/000045058.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  214. Adedayo AO, Grell GA, Bellot P: Case study: Fatal strongyloidiasis associated with human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 infection. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2001, 65 (5): 650-651.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  215. Foucan L, Genevier I, Lamaury I, Strobel M: [Aseptic purulent meningitis in two patients co-infected by HTLV-1 and Strongyloides stercoralis]. Med Trop (Mars). 1997, 57 (3): 262-264.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  216. N’Dri K, Kouame KE, Sahari R, Hommel D, Hulin A: [Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection syndrome with acute meningoencephalitis associated to HTLV-1 and HTLV-2 virus co-infection]. Med Mal Infect. 2008, 38 (3): 162-164. 10.1016/j.medmal.2007.11.012.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  217. Drug V, Haliga R, Akbar Q, Mihai C, Cijevschi Prelipcean C, Stanciu C: Ascites with Strongyloides stercoralis in a patient with acute alcoholic pancreatitis and liver cirrhosis. JGLD. 2009, 18 (3): 367-369.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  218. Ho PL, Luk WK, Chan AC, Yuen KY: Two cases of fatal strongyloidiasis in Hong Kong. Pathology. 1997, 29 (3): 324-326. 10.1080/00313029700169215.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  219. WHO: Model Lists of Essential Medicines. http://www.who.int/medicines/publications/essentialmedicines/en/,

Pre-publication history

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work has been supported by the EC within the 7th Framework Program under grant agreement FP7-GA-261495.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centre for Tropical Diseases (CTD), Sacro Cuore Hospital, Negrar, Verona, Italy

    Dora Buonfrate, Andrea Angheben, Federico Gobbi & Zeno Bisoffi

  2. Barcelona Centre for International Health Research (CRESIB) Hospital Clinic, Barcelona, Spain

    Ana Requena-Mendez & Jose Muñoz

  3. Department of Clinical sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium

    Jef Van Den Ende

Authors
  1. Dora Buonfrate
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ana Requena-Mendez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Andrea Angheben
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Jose Muñoz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Federico Gobbi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Jef Van Den Ende
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Zeno Bisoffi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Dora Buonfrate.

Additional information

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors’ contributions

DB searched PubMed, analyzed the data and wrote the manuscript. ARM analyzed the data and critically reviewed the manuscript. AA created the search strategy and analyzed the data. JM, FG and JVDE gave intellectual content and critically reviewed the manuscript. ZB conceptualized the review and critically reviewed the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Authors’ original submitted files for images

Rights and permissions

This article is published under license to BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Buonfrate, D., Requena-Mendez, A., Angheben, A. et al. Severe strongyloidiasis: a systematic review of case reports. BMC Infect Dis 13, 78 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2334-13-78

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2334-13-78

Keywords

  • Strongyloidiasis
  • Strongyloides
  • Hyperinfection
  • Disseminated strongyloidiasis
  • Review

BMC Infectious Diseases

ISSN: 1471-2334

Contact us