Table 1 An overview of clinical studies reporting on the levels of C-reactive protein, together with cardiovascular disease related outcomes, in people living with human immunodeficiency virus (PLWH) on high active antiretroviral therapy (HAART)
Year, Reference | Country, Ethnicity | Study population, including age and exposure period | Type of HAART and exposure period | Key findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Studies from Africa | ||||
Mutevedzi et al., 2013 [43] | South Africa, Black Africans | PLWH on HAART (n = 108), with an average of 57 years | Type of HAART regimen not disclosed, but participants were monitored for 12 months | Serum levels of hs-CRP levels were significantly increased in the study population |
Botha et al., 2014 [36] | South Africa, Black Africans | PLWH on HAART (n = 66), with an average of 48 years | Received a combination of d4T, 3TC, and EFZ, and were monitored for 36 months | Serum levels of hs-CRP were higher, and this was accompanied by increased CVD-related outcomes, including systolic blood pressure, as well as TC, LDL-c, and TG |
Canipe et al., 2014 [44] | Zambia, Black Africans | PLWH on HAART (n = 33), with an average of 36 years | Received a combination of d4T, 3TC, and EFZ and were monitored for 3 months | Serum hs-CRP were elevated, and this was correlated with BMI |
Ssinabulya et al., 2014 [45] | Uganda, Black Africans | PLWH on HAART (n = 34), with an average of 37 years | Received a combination of d4T, 3TC, NVP; ZDV to TDF, 3TC, EFZ] or NVP, and were monitored for 60 months | Serum levels of hs-CRP and this was positively correlated with high waist circumference, TG, and HDL: LDL-c ratio |
Fourie et al., 2015 [38] | South Africa, Black Africans | PLWH on HAART (n = 66), with an average of 49 years | Received a combination of d4T/3TC/EFV (or NVP) and monitored for 60 months | Serum levels of hs-CRP, together with IL-6 were not affected. However, lipid profiles were abnormal indicating increased TC, LDL-c, and reduced HDL-c levels in these individuals |
Gleason et al., 2015 [46] | Ethiopia, Black Africans (Amhara) | PLWH on HAART (n = 91), with an average of 39 years | Received a combination of TDF (or AZT)/3TC/EFV; AZT (or TDF)/3TC/NVP; AZT (or TDF)/3TC/LPV-r; or ddI/ABC (or d4T)/LPV-r and monitored for 60 months | Serum levels if hs-CRP levels were increased, and this correlated with high levels of TG, LDL, including elevated heart rate |
Zhou et al., 2016 [34] | Zimbabwe, Black Africans | PLWH on HAART (n = 170), with an average of 41 years | Received a combination of NVP/3TC/TDF, EFV/3TC/TDF, or ZDV/3TC/TDC for 9 months | Serum levels of hs-CRP were significantly in the study population |
Borkum et al., 2017 [47] | South Africa, Black Africans | PLWH on HAART (n = 46), with an average of 42 years | Received a combination of d4T/3TC/EFV (or NVP); or AZT/ddI/LPV-r, and monitored for 90 months | Serum levels of hs-CRP were significantly increased, and this was accompanied by a high waist circumference |
Muswe et al., 2017 [48] | Zimbabwe, Black Africans | PLWH on HAART (n = 124), with an average of 42 years | Received a combination of TDF/NVP/3TC; TDF/EFV/ 3TC; STV (or ZDV)/NVP/3TC; TDF/ATV/RTV; ABC/ATV/3TC; or TDF + ATV + 3TC. Participants were monitored for 120 months | Plasma levels of hs-CRP, together with TNF-α were significantly high in the study population |
Appiah et al., 2020 [27] | Ghana, Black Africans | PLWH on HAART (n = 156), with an average of 48 years | TDF + 3TC + EFZ; AZT + 3TC + NVP; AZT + 3TC + EFZ; TDF + 3TC + LPV/r, TDF + 3TC + NVP; AZT + 3TC; AZT + NVP. Participants were monitored for 16 months | Serum levels of hs-CRP were significantly high, and this was correlated with elevated TG levels and high waist circumference ratio |
Bestawros et al., 2015 [17] | Zambia, Black Africans | PLWH on HAART (n = 33), with an average of 36 years | Received a combination of EFV/TDF/FTC and were monitored for 3 months | Serum levels of hs-CRP, together with TNF-α were elevated |
Studies from the United States | ||||
Hurwitz et al., 2004 [49] | United States, African American and Caucasians | PLWH on HAART (n = 41), with an average of 41 years | Type of HAART regimen not disclosed, but participants were monitored for 6 months | Serum levels of hs-CRP were not significantly affected |
Boger et al., 2009 [50] | United States, Caucasians | PLWH on HAART (n = 19), with an average of 44 years | Received 35% were on two NRTIs plus TFV, 33% on ZDV, 22% on ABC, 9% on ddI, and 7% on d4T. 40% were on a PI, 33% were on a NNRTI, and 2% were on ENF, and this was for 24 weeks | Serum levels of hs-CRP were elevated, and this was linked high BMI, as well as impaired lipid profiles, including TG and lower HDL-c |
Ticona et al., 2015 [51] | United States, Peruvians | PLWH on HAART (n = 49), with an average of 37 years | Type of HAART regimen not disclosed, but participants were monitored for 24 months | PLWH on HAART had elevated plasma hs-CRP and IL-6 levels |
Hileman et al., 2013 [52] | United States, African American and Caucasians | PLWH on HAART (n = 36), with an average of 48 years | Received ATV-containing regimen, and were monitored for 3 months | Plasma hs-CRP and IL-8 levels were elevated in studied population |
Desvarieux et al., 2013 [53] | United States, Black Africans, Indians and Caucasian | PLWH on HAART (n = 50), with an average of 41 years | Type of HAART regimen not disclosed, but participants were monitored for 48 months | Serum levels of hs-CRP were not significantly affected |
Syed et al., 2013 [54] | United States, African American and Caucasian | PLWH on HAART (n = 67), with an average of 17 years | Type of HAART regimen not disclosed, but participants were monitored for 12 months | Plasma levels of hs-CRP were not significantly affected, although concentrations of TG, VLDL, and TC were raised |
Studies from Europe | ||||
Calmy et al., 2009 [55] | Switzerland, Asian | PLWH on HAART (n = 34), with an average of 42 years | Received a combination of SQV/r and d4T/ddI, TDF/3TC or TDF/FTC, and monitored for 3 months | Serum levels of hs-CRP were not significantly affected in the study population |
Padilla et al., 2011 [56] | Spain, Asian | PLWH on HAART (n = 50), with an average of 37 years | Received PI or NNRTI, and monitored for 12 months | Plasma levels of hs-CRP were not significantly affected in the study population |
Ghislain et al., 2015 [57] | France, Black African | PLWH on HAART (n = 208), with an average of 38 years | Received a combination of 2 NRTI + 1 PI/r; 2 NRTI + 1 NNRTI, and monitored for 36 months | Serum levels of hs-CRP were reduced in the study population |
Goedel et al., 2019 [26] | Germany, Caucasian | PLWH on HAART (n = 48), with an average of 64 years | Type of HAART regimen not disclosed, but participants were monitored for 60 months | Serum levels of hs-CRP were not significantly affected in the study population |
Di Yacovo et al., 2020 [35] | Spain, Asian | PLWH on HAART (n = 31), with an average of 37 years | Received a combination of ABC/3TC (or FTC)/EFV; TDF/FTC/NVP; ABC/3TC (or FTC)/ATV-r (or DRV-r, LPV-r); or TDF/FTC/RAL. Participants were monitored for 24 months | Plasma levels of hs-CRP were significantly high, and this was correlated with raised concentrations of TC, LDL-c, TC/HDL-c, and TG |