Table 1 Characteristics of included studies. NA: Not available

Cai 2021 [19]

Retrospective cohort study

China

141

Inclusion criteria: (1) age >18 years; (2) onset in the community; (3) new patchy infiltrates, lobar or segmental consolidation, ground-glass opacities or interstitial changes with or without pleural effusions; (4) new onset of cough or expectoration, or aggravation of existing symptoms of respiratory diseases.

From September 1, 2018, to May 31, 2019.

Nanjing First Hospital

Within 2 h after admission of patients

Blood

Diagnosis is according to the clinical manifestations, sputum culture and PCR results.

20.05

Chalupa 2011 [20]

Prospective cohort study

Czech

81

Inclusion criteria: Adult patients (18–80 years old) presenting fever (axillary temperature C38 C) and a clinical diagnosis of infection (see below) were eligible for inclusion in this study if they were admitted to the standard wards of the Department of Infectious Diseases.

From April 2007 to September 2009.

Bulovka University Hospital

NA

Blood and Serum

Diagnosis of bacterial infection was made clinically based on the findings of focal infection.

NA

Kandil 2018 [21]

Cross-sectional study

Egypt

90

Inclusion criteria: Patients with meningitis admitted to the Ministry of Health Specialized Hospital

End of 2016 to Early 2017

Fever Hospital in Alexandria

NA

Serum and CSF

Diagnosis was based on history, clinical criteria, and CSF examination criteria.

45.3

(Blood)

56.7

(CSF)

Kjolvmark 2012 [13]

Prospective cohort study

Sweden

78

Inclusion criteria: elevated body temperature (≥37.5 °C) or symptoms suggesting UTI, such as abdominal or back pain in older children and irritability or feeding difficulties in younger children.

March to June 2009.

Hospital of Helsingborg

On admission

Urine

Diagnosis is based on patients with a final diagnosis of UTI based on a positive bacterial urine culture result [a single microorganism ≥105 colony-forming-units (CFU)/mL] and typical clinical symptoms of UTI.

32

Kjolvmark 2014 [12]

Case control study

Sweden

345

Inclusion criteria: suspicion of UTI based on symptoms such as: dysuria, frequency, urgency, suprapubic pain, hematuria, and/or flank pain.

January to August 2012

Primary care and hospital ED, Hospital of Helsingborg

At the time of inclusion.

Urine and Blood samples

Diagnosis is based on clinical symptoms of UTI, bacterial species, and bacterial concentrations in the urine culture,

30

Kjolvmark 2016 [28]

Prospective study

Sweden

87

NA

February to April 2013

Primary care and hospital ED, Hospital of Helsingborg

NA

Urine

Diagnosis is based on the results of the urine culture or presence of indwelling catheter.

30

Kong 2022 [24]

Single-center observational study

China

281

Inclusion criteria: older than18 years and experienced neurosurgery that involved dura opening

August 2020 to June 2021

Beijing Tiantan Hospital

NA

CSF

Diagnosis is based on patients who stayed in the intensive care unit (ICU) for more than 48 h were defined as critically ill. Nosocomial meningitis or ventriculitis was confirmed when a patient met criteria 1 or criteria 2 of the definition.

23

Lertdumrongluk 2015 [29]

Prospective study

Thailand

32

inclusion criteria: (1) urinary symptoms; (2) a previous diagnosis of UTI; (3) abnormalities in the urinary tract or obstructive uropathy; or (4) constitutional symptoms in children aged <3 years

January to September 2013

university-based tertiary care hospital

NA

Urine

Diagnosis is based on: Febrile patients with positive urine culture were classified as having APN. Positive urine culture was defined as single bacterial growth of ≥105 colony forming units (CFU)/mL from clean-voided mid-stream urine or ≥5×104 CFU/mL from catheterized urine.

34

Linder 2011 [25]

Prospective and retrospective multicenter cohort study

Sweden

77

Inclusion criteria: patients with clinically suspected meningitis, who underwent a lumbar puncture

March 2006 to November 2009

Lund University Hospital, Lund, Sweden

NA

CSF

Diagnosis was based on classification of bacterial meningitis was based on the criteria of Durand.

20

Ma 2022 [14]

Prospective case control study

China

87

Inclusion criteria: (I) inpatient with complete clinical data at the Department of Respiratory Medicine of our hospital; (II) be aged ≥18 years; (III) for the case group, meet the diagnostic criteria for respiratory tract bacterial infection

January 2019 to December 2019

Department of Respiratory Medicine of the East Hospital of Sichuan Provincial People’s Hospital

On hospital admission

Blood

Diagnosis was based on RTI on the definition and diagnostic criteria for RTI set out in the Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Respiratory Diseases.

24.17

Namiduru 2022 [11]

Prospective study

India

97

Inclusion criteria: Patients with meningitis admitted to University of Gaziantep Medicine Faculty Hospital.

January 2018 to June 2020

Department of Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbi-ology Department of Gaziantep University Medical Faculty.

On inclusion

Blood and CSF

Diagnosis is based on bacterial meningitis is based on a course of clinical history and laboratory experiments. Clinical features were such as the acute onset of headache, fever, and signs of meningeal irritation. Laboratory diagnosis of acute bacterial meningitis (ABM) was made by CSF examination.

9.03 (Blood)

6.99

(CSF)

Niu 2019 [22]

Randomized controlled trial

China

497

Inclusion criteria: suspected to be a bacterial or viral infection

October 2017 to February 2018

School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University

On inclusion

Blood

NA

3.83

Obreja 2022 [10]

Prospective study

Romania

72

Inclusion criteria: over the age of 18 who presented signs and symptoms suggestive for meningitis and whose diagnoses were confirmed cytologically and biochemically by lumbar puncture

February 2018 to November 2020

Infectious Diseases Hospital

On admission

Blood and CSF

Diagnosis is based on identification of bacteria either directly by Gram stain smears and cultures from blood/CSF or indirectly by latex agglutination test of CSF confirmed the bacterial infections. Viral meningitis was defined as the presence of acute onset of meningitis symptoms.

2.47

Ren 2021 [26]

Case control study

China

308

Inclusion criteria: for PM, were i) children with common symptoms of PM, including fever, irritability, vomiting, drowsiness, and impaired consciousness, and ii) positive bacterial cultures or smear test of the CSF. The inclusion criteria for VM were i) children

January 2018 to January 2020

Mianyang Central Hospital

NA

Blood and CSF

NA

54.7

Yang 2022 [23]

Case control study

China

195

Inclusion criteria: (1) patients who met the diagnostic criteria for AURTI in children; (2) patients with no heart, liver, kidney or other important organ injuries; (3) patients without immune diseases and dermatomyositis; (4) patients aged 1–7.

September 2019 to January 2021

Department of Pediatrics of Fujian Maternity and Child Health Hospital

First day after admission. One day before discharge, the serum was tested again.

Blood

Diagnosis is based on patients who met the diagnostic criteria for AURTI in children after relevant inspections

NA

Zhang 2019 [27]

Prospective study

China

94

Inclusion criteria: (1) patients with no heart, liver, kidney or other important organ injuries; (3) patients without immune diseases and dermatomyositis; (4) patients aged 1–7.

January to December 2016

Weifang People’s Hospital, Xuanwu Hospital Affiliated to Capital Medical University, and Qianfoshan Hospital of Shandong Province.

Within 72 hours.

CSF

Diagnosis is based on cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) WBC > 10 cells/μL with any of the following three items: (1) temperature (T) ≥ 38°C for more than 3 days; (2) meningeal irritation (+); (3) blood WBC > 10 × 109 cells/L; or CSF culture was positive.

NA