Table 1 Risk factors for human leptospirosis based on case control studies

Douglin et al (1997)

St. Andrew Barbados

Laboratory based retrospective

Cases 22

Gardening

4.57(1.09-20.36)

Con. 38

presence of dogs around the home

7.82(1.79-46.55)

wearing boots in the garden or yard

8.59(1.93-42.55)

walking through ponds or stagnant water

25.62(2.89-1151.84)

Bovet et al (1999)

Seychellus

Population based prospective

Cases 75

Gardening

9.86 (2.6-36.1)

Con. 65

Indoor occupation

0.28 (0.09-0.85)

Home built with corrugated iron

4.6 (1.09-19.4)

Wet soil around home

5.65 (1.39-23)

Refuse not collected by public service

5.23 (1.37-20)

Cats at home

7.55 (2.04-27.9)

Skin wounds

6.66 (2.04-27.9)

Drinking locally made brew

5.41 (1.38-21.2)

Leal-Castellanos et al (2003)

Chiapas, Mexico

Rural community prevalence study

1169 subjects

skin cut or abrasion

4.2 (3.1-5.7)

contact with animal excreta with no

1.9 (1.3-2.7)

protection and with a skin cut or abrasion

2.3 (1.1-4.6)

Phraisuwan et al (2002)

Thailand

High risk exposure - after pond cleaning

Cases 43

wearing long pants or skirts

0.217

Con. 61

presence of more than two wounds on the body

3.97

Ashford et al (2000)

Nicaragua

High risk exposure Following an Outbreak

Case 85

Rural household

2.61 (1.06-6.45)

Con. 481

Gathering wood

2.08 (1.14-3.79)

Shelling/husking corn

1.8 (0.72-4.51)

Indoor water source

0.42 (0.22-0.80)

Everard et al

Barbados

Laboratory based retrospective

Sugar-cane workers

5

(1990)

those whose families minded livestock

2.5

rodents in their garden/yard

1.8

Johnson et al (2004)

Peru

Endemic area seroprevalence

Case 235

Con. 1116

Not wearing shoes in the field

2.17 (1.39-3.37)

Tangkanakul et al (2000)

North- eastern, Thailand

Hospital based Prospective

Case 56

travel on potholed roads

5.0 ( 1.2-20.2)

Con. 145

traveling by car

0.2 ( 0.06-0.9)

Sarkar et al (2002)

Salvador, Brazil

During an epidemic retrospective population based

Case 101

Open sewer in proximity

5.07 (2.04-12.64)

Con. 125

Open sewer floods during rainy season

4.21 (1.51-12.83)

Street floods during rainy season

2.54 (1.08-6.17)

> 6 h/day outdoors

2.42 (1.16-5.00)

Contact with sewer water

3.63 (1.69-7.25)

Contact with floodwater

3.03 (1.44-6.39)

Contact with mud

3.08 (1.32-5.87)

Sighting groups of five or more rats

5.00 (2.22-21.25)

Peri-domiciliar sighting of rats Sighting

3.40 (1.74-11.78)

Sighting rats at work site

2.40 (1.11-5.17)

Dog as domestic animal

1.19 (0.57-2.47)

Works > 40 h/week

1.72 (0.89-3.66)

Works outdoors exclusively

2.46 (1.04-5.11)

Work-related contact with trash

2.36 (1.23-5.56)

Nardone et al (1998)

Metropolitan France

Retrospective, hospital-based

Case 90

Skin lesion

7.0 (2.7-17.6)

Con. 169

Countryside residence

2.9 (1.1-7.6)

Canoeing

15.5 (1.6-147.0)

Any animal contact

4.8 (1.4-16.2)