Skip to main content

Table 5 Risk factor summary across time to event measures, direction of association (delayed/timely), and type of study (Indigenous/disaggregate population)

From: Time to diagnosis and treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis in indigenous peoples: a systematic review

Risk factor

Estimate Direction/Total References

Indigenous Population (S)

Disaggregated Population (D)

Time to treatment/Total delay (TTm/TD)

Time to diagnosis (TDx)

Patient delay (PD)

Health systems delay (HD)

Health system-treatment Delay (TmD)

Health system-diagnostic Delay (DCD)

Total References: Read Across (S/D)

All studies

Total references

6

5

15

4

3

4

Total references assessing risk factors (S/D)

4 (1/3)

4 (3/1)

15 (7/8)

4 (2/2)

1 (0/1)

4 (1/3)

Demographics

Increasing age/older age

Total references assessing risk factors (S/D)

3 (0/3)

1 (0/1)

10 (3/7)

3 (1/2)

1 (0/1)

2 (0/2)

Delayed Event (S)

  

[36]d

   

Delayed Event (D)

[52]c

[28]a,b

[53]c

[40]c

[33]b

[33]b

Male

Total references assessing risk factors (S/D)

3 (0/3)

2 (1/1)

12 (4/8)

4 (2/2)

1 (0/1)

3 (0/3)

Delayed Event (D)

    

[33]b

 

Timely Event (D)

[52]b

 

[53]c, [50]b, [38]b,c

[40]b

 

[39]c

Indigenous status

Total references assessing risk factors (S/D)

3 (0/3)

1 (0/1)

8 (0/8)

2 (0/2)

1 (0/1)

3 (0/3)

Delayed Event (D)

[3]c, [52]c

 

[39]b,c, [3]c, [38]c, [54]b, [50]b

 

b [33]

 

Timely Event (D)

  

[40]b

[40]b

  

Language, Education, and Culture

Language barrier

Total references assessing risk factors (S/D)

0 (0/0)

1 (1/0)

1 (0/1)

0 (0/0)

0 (0/0)

0 (0/0)

Delayed Event (S)

 

[29, 50]d

    

Delayed Event (D)

  

[50]d

   

Poor TB awareness and knowledge/illiteracy, misunderstanding about TB/low education status

Total references assessing risk factors (S/D)

3 (1/2)

1 (1/0)

10 (5/5)

3 (2/1)

0 (0/0)

1 (0/1)

Delayed Event (S)

[41]c

[35]c,d

[37]c, [49]d, [41]c, [42]b

[41]b,c

  

Delayed Event (D)

  

[50]d, [3]c, [54]b

   

TB Specific

Cultural taboos, social isolation, and stigma

Total references assessing risk factors (S/D)

0 (0/0)

2 (2/0)

3 (2/1)

0 (0/0)

0 (0/0)

0 (0/0)

 

Delayed Event (S)

 

[35]c,d, [31]d

[36]d

   
 

Delayed Event (D)

  

[50]d

   

Smear-negative/Culture-positive/Have extra pulmonary TB

Total references assessing risk factors (S/D)

1 (0/1)

0 (0/0)

4 (1/3)

1 (0/1)

1 (0/1)

2 (1/1)

 

Delayed Event (S)

     

[42]b,c

 

Delayed Event (D)

[3]b,c

  

[3]b,c

[33]b

[33]b

 

Timely Event (D)

  

[53]b,c

   

Normal chest radiograph/not getting chest X-ray/misdiagnosis

Total references assessing risk factors (S/D)

1 (0/1)

1 (1/0)

0 (0/0)

0 (0/0)

1 (0/1)

2 (0/2)

 

Delayed Event (S)

 

[35]d

    
 

Delayed Event (D)

[34]c,d

   

[33]b

[33]b, [38]b

Health Care Access

       

Diagnosis at medical center/1st visit to health clinic/private clinics

Total references assessing risk factors (S/D)

3 (0/3)

1 (1/0)

4 (2/2)

2 (1/1)

1 (0/1)

2 (0/2)

 

Delayed Event (S)

  

[41]b,c

[41]b,c

  
 

Delayed Event (D)

[3]b,c, [52]b,c

 

[51]b

[3]b,c

 

[33]b, [38]b

 

Timely Event (D)

    

[33]b

 

1st visit or general visit to traditional healer

Total references assessing risk factors (S/D)

3 (1/2)

1 (1/0)

6 (4/2)

1 (1/0)

0 (0/0)

0 (0/0)

 

Delayed Event (S)

[41]c

[35]c,d

[36]d, [48]b,c, [41]b,c, [32]d

[37]b

  
 

Delayed Event (D)

  

[3]b,c, [54]b

   

Self-treatment/not seeking medical care

Total references assessing risk factors (S/D)

1 (0/1)

1 (1/0)

5 (2/3)

2 (1/1)

0 (0/0)

0 (0/0)

 

Delayed Event (S)

 

[29]d

[32]d

   
 

Delayed Event (D)

  

[3]b,c, [50]d, [54]b

   

Distance to health facility/rural-remote

Total references assessing risk factors (S/D)

3 (0/3)

3 (2/1)

9 (5/4)

3 (2/1)

0 (0/0)

0 (0/0)

 

Delayed Event (S)

 

[35]d, [31]d

[37]c, [36]d, [48]b,c, [41]b,c, [42]b

[41]b,c

  
 

Delayed Event (D)

[52]b,c, [34]c,d

 

[53]c, [3]c, [54]b, b,d [50]

   

Transportation barrier (including Cost)

Total references assessing risk factors (S/D)

0 (0/0)

2 (2/0)

7 (4/3)

1 (1/0)

0 (0/0)

1 (0/1)

 

Delayed Event (S)

 

[35]d, [29]d

[36]d, [48]b,c, [41]b,c

   
 

Delayed Event (D)

  

[39]b,c, [50]d, [51]b,c

   

Cost of treatment/no health insurance/cost of hospital stay/loss of income

Total references assessing risk factors (S/D)

0 (0/0)

1 (1/0)

6 (4/2)

0 (0/0)

0 (0/0)

1 (0/1)

 

Delayed Event (S)

 

[35]d

[37]c, [36]d, [41]b,c, [48]c

   
 

Delayed Event (D)

  

b,c [39], [50]d

   

Administrative delays i.e. verification for distribution of medicine, waiting for confirmation of diagnosis/referral for specialist, difficulty navigating health system

Total references assessing risk factors (S/D)

0 (0/0)

1 (1/0)

0 (0/0)

2 (1/1)

0 (0/0)

0 (0/0)

 

Delayed Event (S)

 

[29]d

 

[37]c

  
 

Delayed Event (D)

   

[40]d

  
  1. aTime of onset to case notification, bMultivariate, cDescriptive/Univariate, dQualitative; References are not unique and can be in multiple columns
Back to article page

BMC Infectious Diseases

ISSN: 1471-2334

Contact us