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Table 2 Typhoid fever annual incidence rate in population-based, longitudinal studies published from 1st January 1990 to 31st December 2013 (not corrected for blood culture sensitivity)

From: Revisiting typhoid fever surveillance in low and middle income countries: lessons from systematic literature review of population-based longitudinal studies

Location

Year

Rural/urban

Duration (months)

Surveillance type

Inclusion criteria

Population covered by surveillance sitea

Population utilizing the surveillance site

Eligible cases identified

Consented and provide blood sample

Included in final analysis

Surveillance method adjusted denominatorb

Total blood culture- confirmed typhoid fever cases

Annual crude incidence/100,000

Surveillance method adjustedb annual incidence/100,000

Source

Africa

               

Belbeis district, Sharkia, Egypt

July 2001-October 2001

Rural + Urban

4

Passive sentinel sites (1 hospital + 11 fever specialists + 68 health providers + baseline census + health care utilization adjustment)

≥6mths of age; Current fever of ≥3 days

664,000

664,000

449

449

449

664,000

19

6ac

6ac

[9]

Fayoum, Egypt

June 2002-October 2002

Rural + Urban

5

Passive sentinel (1 hospital + 6 district hospitals + 16 infectious disease specialists + 13 rural health unit physicians + 18 primary care providers)

≥1 year age; Current fever of 38 °C for ≥2 days; OR clinically suspected typhoid fever

2,240,000

2,240,000

1815

1815

1804

766,540

90

10

29

[10]

Ashanti region, Ghana

September 2007-November 2008

Rural

13

Passive (1 hospital) + health care utilization adjustment

5-15 years age; Hospitalized; every second case

9600

9600

1456

1456

1456

4800

7

67

135

[11]

Ashanti region, Ghana

Sept 2007- July 2009

Rural

23

Passive (1 hospital) + health care utilization adjustment

<5 years age; hospitalized; every second case

22,425

5333

1351

1351

1196

2667

17

166

333

[11, 12]

Kibera, Kenya

March 2007- February 2009

Urban slum

24

Active (field clinic) + biweekly house to house visit + baseline census + health care utilization adjustment

All age; Current fever of 38 °C; OR respiratory illnessd

28,000

54,535e

7852

1531

1531

16,423e

135

248a

822a

[13]

Lwak, Kenya

October 2006- September 2009

Rural

36

Active (field clinic) + biweekly house to house visit + baseline census + health care utilization adjustment

All age; Current fever of 38 °C; OR respiratory illnessd OR hospitalization

25,000

77,017e

11,258

4185

4185

4944e

22

29

445a

[13]

Pemba, Zanzibar Tanzania

January 2010- December 2010

Rural

12

Passive (three hospital + health care utilization adjustment)

≥2mts age; Current fever of 37.5.C

500,600

53,064

3105

2209

2209

38,182

210

4

55a

[14]

S Asia

               

New Delhi, India

November 1995-October 1996

Urban slum

12

Active (twice weekly house visit + study clinic + baseline census)

<40 years;Current fever of 38 °C for <5 years; Current fever of 38.C for ≥ 3 days for >5 years

7159

6,454e

1454

1217

1217

5402 e

63

880

1166

[17]

Kolkata, India

November 2003-October 2004

Urban slum

12

Active (monthly household visit + 2 government hospitals + 5 study clinics + baseline census)

All age; Febrile ≥ 3 days

56,946

56,946

4378

4342

4342

56,478

122

214

216

[15]

Dhaka, Bangladesh

December 2000 -October2001

Urban slum

10

Active (weekly house visit + field clinic + baseline census)

All age; Current fever of ≥38 °C for <5 years; Current fever of ≥38.C for ≥ 3 days for >5 years

NA

12,407e

889

888

888

12,393e

49

474

395

[18]

Dhaka, Bangladesh

January2003-Januay 2004

Urban slum

12

Active (weekly household visits + field clinic + baseline census)

All age; Current fever of ≥38 °C for <5 years; Current fever of ≥38.C for ≥ 3 days for >5 years

26,586

19,710e

1333

961

961

14,210e

40

150

282

[30]

Karachi, Pakistan

June 1999-December 2001

Urban

12

Active (fortnightly households visits + two study clinics + baseline census)

<16 years of age; Febrile ≥ 3 days

41,845

41,845

7736

7415

7415

40,109

189

452

471

[19]

Karachi, Pakistan

August 2002-July 2004

Urban slum

30

Active (weekly household visit + three study clinics + motivation to private providers + baseline census)

2 to 15 years old; Febrile ≥ 3 days

11,668

29,170e

4198

1248

1248

8672 e

49

168

565

[15]

Peri-urban Karachi, Pakistan

February 2007-May 2008

Semi-urban + Rural

15

Active (weekly household visit + local community health center + baseline census

<5 years of age; Current fever of 38 °C OR pneumococcal clinical syndromef

5570

3,949e

3372

1165

1165

1,364e

16

230

1173

[21]

SE & Eastern Asia

               

Hechi, Guangxi, China

August 2001-July 2002

Rural + Urban

12

Passive (5 hospitals + 23 government clinics + 99 private clinics + baseline census)

5 to 60 years of age; Febrile ≥ 3 days

97,928

97,928

1215

1215

1215

97,928

15

15

15

[15]

Jakarta, Indonesia

August 2002-July 2003

Urban slum

24

Passive (8 government public health centers + 2 government hospitals + baseline census)

All age; Febrile ≥ 3 days

160,261

160,261

6708

5775

5775

137,971

221

69

80

[15, 23]

Dong Thap Vietnam

December 1995-December 1996

Rural

12

Passive (2 health centers + 1 hospital + motivation to private providers + baseline census)

All age; Current fever of ≥38.C for ≥ 3 days

28,329

28,329

973

667

658

19,158

56

198

292

[24]

Hue, Vietnam

June 2002-June 2003

Urban

13

Passive (4 hospitals + 32 government clinics + 55 private clinics + baseline census)

5 to 18 years of age; Febrile > 3 days

84,455

84,455

3678

3611

3611

82,917

18

20

20

[15]

Summary

November 1995 to December 2010

Urban and Rural

281

Variable

Variable

4,010,372

NA

63,220

41,500

41,325

NA

1149

NA

NA

 
  1. NA Not available
  2. aAs reported by authors
  3. bDenominator was corrected for dropout of eligible cases at various level of surveillance starting from health care utilization, referral to health facility, failure to collect blood sample, missing data
  4. cNo correction factor was available
  5. dRespiratory illness was defined for children <5 years old as: cough OR difficulty breathing AND one of the following: convulsions, unable to drink fluids or unable to breastfeed, lethargic, chest in drawing, vomiting everything, stridor, oxygen saturation <90 %; and for persons ≥5 years old as cough OR difficulty breathing OR chest pain AND one of the following: temperature ≥38.0 °C and oxygen saturation <90 %
  6. eEstimated in person years
  7. fPneumococcal clinical syndrome is defined by PneumoADIP investigator group; available at: Case definition for pneumococcal syndrome and other severe bacterial infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2009:48(suppl 2): S197-S202